How have management information systems (MIS) and infor mation technology (IT) had such a profound impact on busi ness in the past 10 years? Maybe the better question to ask is has information technology changed business or has business actually created information technology in the past 10 years? Surprisingly, if we take a look at business in the 1990s, it’s actually less about technology and more about competition: A continued focus on increased productivity and efficiency has intensified competition and driven business toward technology. However, as Diana Farrell relates in the Harvard Business Review, “With the technology sector in shreds, more than a few believe that IT changed scarcely anything [in business] at all.” Today’s business owner or professional can tell that technology does in fact play a key role in the day-to-day operations. In fact, some businesses no longer even have a tangible presence but rather exist only in cyber-land. The transformation from bricks-and-mortar businesses into e-businesses has leveled off but the role of technology and management information systems in business is undeniable. In this chapter we focus on giving an overview of the essentials for today’s cyber-environment and technology-driven organizations and give a particular focus to MIS.
Management information systems.
Management information systems can be described as tools that help managers organize and make decisions from their data. More simply, effective MIS aids communication. Unsurprisingly, it’s still true that people generally accomplish more together than they do apart, and the old concept of collaboration and communication is still at the core of business. Management information systems strive to efficiently collect, format, and communicate information to a wide variety of people. A number of software packages and applications designed to help you collaborate more and communicate better will be described later on in the chapter. First, it is important to have a solid understanding of computing hardware, since these are the tools of processing and communication used in management information systems.
Key Components of Computing Hardware Tools.
Computer hardware is a term to identify the tools that we typically see when looking at someone’s desk: the computer itself, the monitor, the input devices such as the keyboard, disk drive, CD-ROM and DVD-ROM, the mouse, and so on. There are also the components inside the computer that store and process the data that is entered into the systems.
There are all kinds of computers that range from mainframe computers to handhelds. Mainframe computers are large computers that are mainly used by companies to manage bulk data processing—they are very powerful and very expensive. Handhelds, or personal digital assistants (PDAs), are small, increasingly inexpensive, portable devices that allow the regular consumer to connect to calendars, e-mail accounts, phone books, telephones, games, cameras, and much more.
Software.
The real power and use of what the computer can do, however, is largely a function of the software that is installed into these various systems. The most fundamental of the software functions is the operating system OS that runs the computer. Examples of the OS include Windows XP, Windows 2000, Linux, Mac OC, and Unix.
These provide different processes through which we operate and work on our computer systems.
The software directs the computer to perform very specific tasks such as creating a financial spreadsheet/statement/model, preparing a slide presentation, or writing a document on a word processing program. Specific applications software include programs such as Microsoft’s Word (word processing), PowerPoint (presentations), and Excel (financial spreadsheets).
Managing the hardware and software that are used in any business is a difficult task because it requires understanding the functions of each and understanding their purposes.
Role of the chief information officer.
For the small business owner or professional, you are probably reading this chapter to learn about the role and purpose of management information systems and, in effect, to become the “CIO” for your business.
The chief information officer, or CIO, is the person in the company responsible for managing all the information collected from the various hardware and software applications and making sure that the information and communication flow is sufficient to meet the needs of the company objectives.
The CIO Insight Research Company has identified the different roles of the chief information officer. CIOs are responsible for evaluating the fit between the company’s strategy and the technology used to implement its strategy. They are responsible for interviewing and hiring, vetting IT risks and opportunities, monitoring large investments, auditing IT infrastructure for reliability and risk, and counseling IT staff on selected strategic issues. This is no small job.
In an article in the Harvard Business Review, Diana Farrell suggests the CIO should be able to answer each of the following 10 questions:
1. Is the company leveraging IT in our most important business initiatives?
2. Is our management and shareholder information of the high est accuracy and integrity?
3. Are we leveraging technology to ensure business continuity?
4. Are we getting the best return on our technology expen ditures?
5. Are our businesspeople capable of using and managing infor mation and technology effectively?
6. Are we leveraging IT for business innovation and learning?
7. Are we capitalizing on the business potential of the Internet?
8. Are we optimizing the supply and delivery of IT services?
9. Do we have the right IT partners?
10. What do we expect from the CIO and IT organization?
It is likely that at least one of these questions has crossed your mind during the course of running your business or practicing your profession. The information in this chapter will help you to better answer the questions and become a more effective CIO for your business.
Functions of mis: tools to share data in a uniform context.
Microsoft Word is one of the most basic software tools and is commonly used. It is a word processing application that allows users to input, store, retrieve, edit, print, and share various types of documents.
These documents can also be easily attached to e-mail messages and sent to various locations where collaborators can work on the same document. Microsoft Word also has an editorial tool that allows users working collaboratively to track and illustrate changes to a document without altering the integrity of the document.
For example, this chapter has been written using Microsoft Word.
An author first writes the content; other contributors and editors change, format, and edit the content, and then the content from this specific chapter can be integrated into the larger work. In this sense, Word is an effective tool in a management information system because it is facilitating the way a business operates. Think of the time and effort saved because with this word processing technology a document can be shared, stored, transmitted, worked on, and printed.
As even the most basic word processing capabilities grow, it is increasingly possible to keep fewer paper files—a movement toward the “paperless office.” Although we’ve seen a large trend in this direction, many business owners and professionals are still uncomfortable getting rid of paper copies altogether.
One of the software applications commonly used for desktop publishing is Adobe. You may be familiar with Adobe Acrobat, which is one of the applications of this software that allows people to upload documents on the Web and have others download the same document; but unlike a Word document, the formatting and content cannot be changed, altered, or extracted. Adobe allows the user to input the content and design and format it in a more intricate manner than a word processing application allows, for example, into printed material. Often a desktop publishing application will be used for functions such as producing brochures, newsletters, calendars, and reports.
Other very useful applications for the small business are spreadsheet programs such as Microsoft Excel. This software is a very dynamic and powerful tool that can create reports and worksheets that the user can manipulate by using simple formulas such as addition and division, use complex models that link sheets to each other, and have them interface with real-time data, depending on the needs of the business. The program can also compute statistics, run financial models, create a variety of charts, and monitor performance. Although many people are intimidated by numbers, spreadsheets can simplify and sort data in a user-friendly manner. Spreadsheet programs can also create graphics or charts generated from data that you input. The graphics can then be inserted into word-processing documents or presentations.
The impact of electronic mail, or e-mail, has revolutionized personal and professional communication. E-mail provides a rapid communication tool that can share information, provide updates, and transport data almost instantly in most cases. E-mail has been adopted to communicate both inside and outside an organization; it can carry such important documents as contracts and agreements through the use of file attachments or simply provide basic messages such as reconfirming a meeting. Not surprisingly, software has been created to help users manage the information that comes through their e-mail accounts. One such tool is Microsoft Outlook, which allows users to receive, send, and manage not only their e-mail accounts, but also their calendars, contacts, tasks, and notes. Software applications such as Outlook have proven to reduce paperwork and decrease time wasted in playing telephone tag, with a corresponding impact on increasing productivity.
One of the easiest ways that a small company can make a big impact is by looking professional in all its communication with stakeholders. An opportunity to set your company apart from the competition is by having outstanding presentations that aren’t merely based on agendas and notes but, technology permitting, have a polished look projected onto a screen to accompany your ideas. As discussed in Chapter 10, presentation software such as PowerPoint allows you to create entire presentations, replete with graphics, audio and video clips, impressive effects, and even prerehearsed timing tools. It ultimately allows you to combine text with multimedia and design that are consistent with the professional image that you would like to project.
If PowerPoint can’t handle all of the multimedia computing that you would like to use, there are technologies that can integrate media—voice, video, graphics, and animation—and convert them into computer-based applications that can be shared and duplicated with others. One of the expanding uses for multimedia computing is employee presentations, client presentations, use in conferences, and use in the classrooms of some of the more advanced educational institutions. Presentation software has the power to focus an audience, project an image, and aid communication with unparalleled success when used effectively.
Another important software application combines information sharing through a common database with communication via e-mail so that employees or associates can collaborate on projects. This groupware application allows employees to work together on a single document simultaneously while seeing what their collaborators are changing in real time.
As is the case with all of these applications, groupware allows a company to increase the scale and efficiencies of its business. Software allows users to use, copy, edit, share, and track data at record speed and then allows the diffusion and reach of their work to increase exponentially. Metcalf’s Law states that, in fact, the use of applications such as those just described increases exponentially by the number of users that adopt it. For example, e-mail would be fairly useless if just one person had an e-mail account. E-mail has increased value the more people adopt it and use it to communicate and share information. It is important to think about how your business’s stakeholders are communicating; which applications are they using to understand the information you need to share? In evaluating technologies and applications, you should always choose those that the majority of your stakeholders use, if they offer the desired functions, to ensure comprehension and effectiveness of company outputs.
Information systems for decision making.
MIS is used for communicating, but the ultimate goal is to use these tools to help make better decisions. In this way, the software used for managerial decision making should be based on characteristics of the individual, the task being performed, and how information is presented.
Jane Carey and Charles Kacmar demonstrate the variety of factors that go into deciding which technology is best suited for a particular decision-making situation. These tools and processes have a variety of functions and purposes, ranging from managing customers through customer relationship management software, to knowledge management functions (sharing and disseminating the “institutional memory” of the organization), to shipping and tracking the company’s products or services.
Decision support systems (DSS), for example, are information systems that quickly provide relevant data to help people make decisions to choose a particular course of action. For example, a DSS tool may be able to simulate a situation and predict various outcomes based on known variables. What will the revenue of an airline be given the possible number of flights completed (taking into consideration weather delays and other unforeseen obstacles), how many passengers will be on each flight, what number of seats they are sold, at which price, and so on. A DSS can take into account all of these variables and come up with various revenue projections based on the possible outcomes. These tools might be complicated to figure out at first, but prove to be invaluable in the long run for the amount of time and monetary resources saved.
Executive information systems (EIS) allow managers to access the company’s primary databases utilized specifically by top managers.
These systems can be highly customized and typically cater to a specific industry. For example, one such system describes itself as:
The first comprehensive decision-support system designed for property/casualty companies. You can project financial results, discover and mitigate unacceptable risks, optimize reinsurance structures, test alternative investment strategies, allocate capital and reveal the sources of value within your company. Don’t spend your time building models, spend it refining strategies. Fi nancial decision-making requires reliable and thorough projec tions of the macro-economy and financial markets. [Our tool] is the most comprehensive economic scenario generator, incorpo rating individual security classes, inflation indices and macro state variables. It models historical relationships across markets, for realistic simulations that allow for stress-testing that simpler models can’t achieve.
—DFA Capital Management, Inc. (www dot dfa dot com Challenge of protecting against computer crime.
As explored earlier in the chapter, e-mail is an extremely valuable tool that has found a secure place in today’s business environment, but it should also be noted that e-mail does have significant limitations with regard to privacy, piracy, and filtering. Not only is there a risk to your company through electronic mail, but computer crime, cyberterrorism, and viruses all pose a threat to your business operating systems.
Intellectual property is the most valuable part of any business and as an intangible asset it is also extremely difficult to protect. Just as computers and software programs offer efficient ways of communicating, they also provide gateways to unintended/illegal information sharing that is difficult to monitor.
The Computer Security Institute conducted a survey in 2003 that had disturbing results. The survey showed that 15 percent of businesses didn’t know whether their systems were attacked the previous year. And of those who reported that they had had attacks on their systems, more than half of them never reported it to anyone. Just as crime on the street has law enforcement officers monitoring and trying to control it, so does computer crime.
Although the data may seem hard to believe, consider that employees or outsiders can change or invent data in computing programs to produce inaccurate or misleading information or illegal transactions or can insert and spread viruses. There are also people who access computer systems for their own illicit benefit or knowledge or just to see if they can get in, which is referred to as hacking.
Almost as if it were a very challenging game, computer hacking has been responsible over the past several years for some of the most serious crimes in business. One hacking technique referred to as the Trojan horse allows hackers to take over a computer without the user knowing and capture the password of an investor’s online account, for example. These are the security issues that clients and companies have to face as online investing, banking, and account management become more the norm.
Identity theft, international money laundering, theft of business trade secrets, auction fraud, web site spoofing, and cyber-extortion are all schemes that were carried out in 2002 and involved at least 125,000 victims and more than $100 million. And these crimes didn’t make the Computer Security Institute’s Computer Crime and Security Survey.
Computer viruses are programs that secretly attach themselves to other computer programs or files and change, export, or destroy data.
Because viruses are frequently spread through e-mail, it is important to know who the sender is before opening the message or an attachment.
It is best to use antivirus software to see if the document has a virus or whether the message should simply be deleted.
Not only is the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) concerned about viruses, but Microsoft, together with the FBI, Secret Service, and Interpol, announced the introduction of an antivirus reward program in November 2003. Microsoft is involved with funding the program to help law enforcement agencies identify and bring to justice those who illegally release damaging worms, viruses, and other types of malicious code on the Internet.
Other computer crimes consist of actual theft of computing equipment (laptops and PDAs are particularly vulnerable due to their small size), using computer technology to counterfeit currency or other official documents (passports, visas, ID cards, etc.), and using computer technology to illegally download or “pirate” music and movies that are copyrighted. With so much potential for computer crime, what can small business owners do to protect themselves?
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security suggests taking the following steps if you are worried that your systems have been attacked:
Respond quickly.
Don’t stop system processes or tamper with files if you are un sure of what actions to take.
Follow organizational policies/procedures.
Use the telephone to communicate.
Contact the incident response team of your credit union.
Consider activating caller identification on all incoming lines.
Establish contact points with general counsel, emergency re sponse staff, and law enforcement.
Make copies of files intruders may have copied or left.
Identify a primary point of contact to handle potential evidence.
Don’t contact the suspected perpetrator.
In addition, it is important to prevent access to your system and viewing of your data by unauthorized users. Passwords, firewalls, and encryption software are useful in this regard.
Finally, it critical to back up your data and computing systems in case your system is attacked and you need to retrieve data that has been altered or destroyed in the process. There are many systems and ways for backing up data and it doesn’t matter which you choose, but rather that you consistently and accurately back up your data for your records.
Internet, intranet, and extranet.
As businesses and professional practices implement the use of technology and management information systems, it becomes important to link these tools together and provide a means for the machines, the information they produce, and those who use and benefit from the system to communicate with each other. Thus, computers in an organization and computers in different organizations form networks to facilitate the exchange.
You may have heard someone refer to an “extranet” before and thought the individual actually meant “Internet” because we all know that that’s what most people use to find and share information; but there are three major types of networks that allow people to access and share information.
The Internet is what a company uses to connect to the World Wide Web and communicate with clients and the broader outside world. This communication happens through e-mail, web sites, and researching, or accessing, public information.
The company intranet, on the other hand, doesn’t connect the company to the outside world, but rather to an internal network. This wide area network (WAN) connects all of the company’s computers to allow them to access the same hard drive and therefore be able to share files and information from a central, internal location.
An extranet occurs when the business or practice is networked to a variety of stakeholders such as suppliers, dealers, manufacturers, or distributors. This is a network that is shared among a select set of businesses that work together closely and need to share information quickly to efficiently plan and execute their business.
These larger networks define where information is shared and who can access it; the importance of other computer networks is that they define how the information is shared.
Computer networks and their importance.
Computing systems consist of hardware and software and also networks. A local area network (LAN) has the capacity to connect computers to the network from one physical site in the company’s offices and within different buildings. At the designated site, people can share both the hardware and software of the system set up in that location.
LANs are changing, though, as they move toward a wireless application (WLAN) that provides the benefits of networking equipment without the use of cables and being hardwired. Before you decide which is best for your business, you should consider the number of wireless access points, the type of information/data that will be transmitted, the speed with which you will need the data transmitted, the bandwidth that applications require, mobility coverage for roaming, and whether the system you purchase will be easily upgradable as the technology advances.
You should also consider that the WLAN’s speed as it appears when you buy it might not necessarily be the product’s real-world speed, because the WLAN is a shared medium and divides available throughput rather than providing dedicated speeds to the connected devices such as a dial-up connection. This limitation makes it a little more challenging to figure out how much speed you will need in the end. Therefore, it is critical to try to purchase a model that is upgradable.
Because wireless networks utilize technology that is a form of broadcasting data through the air, instead of a tailored system of wires, they present a concern over the security of such systems. When choosing a wireless system, internal security measures must be included to make sure the wireless data cannot be “hijacked” or hacked into by a cyberthief or pirate.
Throughput is a major consideration for your wireless deployment. Consider what types of traffic—e-mail, Web traffic, speed-hungry enterprise resource planning (ERP) or computer-aided design (CAD) applications—will ride across your WLAN most often. Network speeds diminish significantly as users wander farther from their access points, so install enough access points to support not only all your users but the speeds at which they need to connect.
One certainty, however, is that with the advent of wireless, the requirement of sitting in one place connected to a wall to access the Internet is becoming obsolete. A virtual office might be everyone’s reality in the not too distant future.
Another type of network that is used is the broadband wide area networks. These are more powerful networks that have the ability to connect computers in different places by microwave, satellite, or telephone and can link together a large geographical area. These types of networks are growing, especially in the restaurant business. Restaurants are deploying these networks to have a virtual private network for managing supply chain integration with Web-based food-ordering and back-office functions. Some restaurants even use them for “frontof-the-house” applications such as credit card authorization. Restaurants that are using this high level of technology include Au Bon Pain, Chevy’s, McDonald’s, and Arby’s. These restaurants have also shown a preference for satellite technology for transmitting their data, and this seems to have been a growing trend in 2003 according to Spacenet, a WAN service provider. It is not surprising as satellites’ speed and reliability continue to improve.
But the limits of WANs have yet to be reached. Optimization offerings are hitting the market promising to accelerate applications with high-end units. They are more scalable and more compressible, boosting the performance of even the e-commerce sites that carry the heaviest traffic volumes. This higher-powered technology comes at a price, though. These systems represent significant costs depending on the scale of compression, acceleration, and speed you need for your business.
Categories of management information systems.
There are three primary MIS categories: transaction processing systems, management support systems, and office automation systems.
These basic terms are descriptive. Transaction processing systems handle daily business operations; they collect and organize operational data from the activities of the company. Management support systems are used to help analyze the data that is collected and organized; they help the manager make decisions by forecasting, generating reports, and performing other types of analysis. Office automation systems facilitate communication between people who use the same operating systems through word processing, e-mail, fax machines, and other types of technologies.
How companies manage information technology to their advantage.
Before any purchases are made it is imperative to look at what applications or combination of applications will be best suited to your company or small business. The technology packages should be planned out to ensure that the right technology is being used.
The first step in that process is evaluating what your goals and objectives are for the purpose of the technology. It’s a good idea to have a collaboration of the needs of the executives, the IT managers, and other managerial staff who will have specific needs or ideas about the technologies being used; this can help shift the traditional bottomline-driven point of view to a top-down, strategic perspective and increase the staff’s perceived value in the technology.
It is then useful to map the information flow to analyze how information is transferred from one point to another within an organization. While this concept itself is simple, it is important to understand that mapping the information flow can also support a ranking system to identify the most valuable potential client for information resource center (IRC) services, create a picture of the competitive landscape, and help define the necessary actions for shortand long-term budgeting.
There are three primary benefits to mapping information flows.
The first enables an understanding of how information is used and by whom. You should ask yourself the basic question of what information you already have within your organization and then figure out where it is located and how you can access it. The second pinpoints the ultimate client or key stakeholder for various types of information services, as well as where information touches as it passes through the organization. The third primary benefit helps to focus information services on the highest potential opportunities. In other words, it helps you clearly identify which information has the highest value and how you can do a better job at capturing it. This realization can make the value of the information center even more obvious.
There are numerous consultants who specialize in helping small businesses map their information flows; here are the generally accepted five steps to the information mapping system that a consultant will use.
1. Describe the current situation. What is the company organiza tion chart? Who are the clients? Who aren’t the clients but still use the system? Once the general idea is generated, it is of critical importance to drill down even deeper and ask yourself how well you really know what the client’s needs are. Which departments do they interact with? What is the sphere of in fluence over the account?
2. Describe the potential clients in other business units within the company and discuss their specific information needs.
This helps to give a better understanding of which informa tion needs are, and are not, being met currently.
3. Mapping the potential clients is the next step. This allows a visualization of the potential areas for overlap, potential for consolidation of resources, and new solutions for optimal in formation flow.
4. As effective decision making becomes more difficult with complex, competitive, and dynamic working environments, it is critical to rank the solutions for prioritization. This process helps you decide which solution will meet the majority of the company needs while using the budgeted resources. The rank ing process can be conducted by assessing the risk activity within the organization. Even by just assigning each activity with low-, medium-, or high-risk levels, you can create a pri ority scheme for the organization, which allows the best solu tion to be found for the least amount of time and effort.
5. The final step in the process is then creating the information map. Mapping the final solutions to show each department and the suggestions for their information needs creates an un derstanding of each subset of the organization, highlights the ultimate client, and results in information solution recommendations for each.
At the core behind mapping information flows is knowledge management. Many companies have found that as the organization grows, information that is critical to the company’s success ends up getting lost, or no one is quite sure who should know it or where to access it. As a result, mapping information flows is getting increased attention, but so too is basic knowledge management.
A case study to show how critical knowledge management is for success is found in the Brixco story. Ashley Braganza of the Cranfield School of Management noted that Brixco, a 4,000-employee utility company, found it needed to make radical changes to its working practices, but was hindered by outdated IT systems and poorly managed knowledge, especially customer knowledge across its four main functional communities—customer operations, finance, sales, and marketing. Brixco decided to turn its IT solution project around by creating, in effect, a “community of communities of practice” that spanned its four main functional communities. Rather than putting employee requirements at the center of the system, Brixco asked the board to prioritize the key objectives linked to the business strategy for the company. When this was accomplished, a small group of people formed a team to identify stakeholders in the process and then backed into what knowledge the employees needed to deliver to these stakeholders. This meant that the company was consistent in the messages being sent out to clients and that the necessary information was more easily managed. The findings from this company suggest that people/employees are able to articulate the linkages between knowledge and their day jobs, and through the links to stakeholders’ expectations they can tie their knowledge back to the organization’s business strategy.
Knowledge management is about sharing organizational collective knowledge, improving productivity, and fostering innovation within the organization. It ends up making information more easily accessible to all who need it and increases the efficiency and productivity of the company.
Leading trends in information technology.
Experts are forecasting a trend toward increased spending on technology after a cyclical drop soon after Y2K concerns passed. With antiquated legacy systems getting more and more expensive to fix, old computers breaking down, and the benefits of mobile computing continually being realized, new technology is expected to enter the business world with renewed speed. As is often the case with the gradual diffusion of technological innovation into the marketplace, telecom and storage services are simultaneously decreasing in cost.
According to Michael J. Miller, editor-in-chief of PC magazine, the biggest growth opportunity for management information systems technology is in Web services. He predicts that emerging Web service standards will promote integration and let companies tie together existing applications within an organization, connect to outside applications, and create applications that are entirely new. Due to the increasing number of applications in the corporate world, Miller also does not see that just one player (such as Microsoft or Sun Microsystems) will dominate the market.
Mimicking the security issues discussed earlier, Miller sees that security is the biggest obstacle for continued growth in the sector and that both consumers and businesses will need to address issues of security better.
Another trend in MIS is what is referred to as business process management (BPM). As has been illustrated in this chapter, there are myriad applications and packages that can be used for the IT enthusiast. A new trend that is emerging in the area, however, is business process management. BPM is recognized as one of the fastest growing technologies in the software world with a market value of over $400 million in 2003 (according to an analyst in the Delphi Group). The innovation of the technology finds its roots in automating the processes that involve people. It includes capabilities derived from process modeling, process monitoring, application integration, and rapid application development tools.
Additionally, there is a trend toward integrating different technologies. As mentioned earlier, PDAs can now include telephones and cameras, but there has also been the creation of “palmtops” and Web phones. These innovations in technology are going outside the communication realm and now migrating toward regular household appliances such as washers, refrigerators, and even microwaves.
One of the greatest trends in the world of information systems, however, is a shortage of the people who can help integrate, install, and run these information systems. Companies are finding it increasingly difficult to stay current with the latest technologies and are facing a shortage of IT personnel. This can be seen as an excellent opportunity for the technologically inclined, but can be a competitive hindrance to a company that simply can’t access the resources needed to keep up in its industry, and to its clients as well. In the future, the trend toward IT outsourcing will continue and most likely make the reliance on consultants even greater.
References.
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Boone, Louise, and David Kurts. Contemporary Business 11th ed.
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Farrell, Diana. “The Real New Economy.” Harvard Business Review On Point (October, 2003).
Gitman, Lawrence, and Carl McDaniel. The Future of Business, 4th ed.
Thomson South-Western, 2003.
Goldsborough, Reid. “Arming Yourself in the Virus War.” Tactics (De cember 2003).
Hibberd, Betty Jo, and Allison Evatt. “Mapping Information Flows: A Practical Guide.” Management Information Journal (January/ February 2004).
Liddle, Alan. “Kiosk, WAN Use at Restaurants Spreads Far and Wide.” Nations Restaurant News (October 27, 2003).
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Middlemiss, Jim, and George Hume. “Feds Crack Down on Cyber fraud.” Wall Street & Technology (December 1, 2003).
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Musich, Paula. “Pushing the Limits of WANs.” eweek (January 19, 2004).
Friday, December 31, 2010
MBA in a day. Chapter 11, Project Management.
MBA in a day. Section 4, systems and processes.
Chapter 11, Project Management.
Summary.
Project management in its simplest form of understanding is all about planning. Proper planning can be somewhat complicated, and to do it well requires delving into what needs to be done from the very beginning.
Although the practice of project management has been around for centuries, scholars and project management professionals are still studying how to make project management better. The value of face-to-face interaction does not deteriorate, even with the deployment of virtual project management teams. Projects require leaders who are trained in both business and technology and have teams with qualified project management professionals when possible.
There are various preferences and cultural values that weigh different communication techniques and interpersonal skills differently.
Perceptions of communication techniques will have an impact on the end user and the end result of the project, so it is important to clarify preferences at the beginning.
In this chapter we explore a concept and a practice that has grown in importance as organizations have become more complex and are continuously evolving and implementing new ideas, products, and services or seek to improve existing ones. An organization will create a project as a way to focus resources on an opportunity or issue and to serve as a way to effectively organize its efforts to achieve a specific goal or objective. In a small firm, practice, or business, a project may be the installation of a new accounting software system or the introduction of a new product or service. In large, complex organizations, several projects may be in play at the same time, with some midlevel managers whose only responsibility is the management of a stream of these short-term assignments. In the dynamic nature of today’s organizational environment, project management is an important concept and tool to understand and effectively implement.
According to the Project Management Institute (PMI), 74 percent of all projects fail. The projects can fail from a processes standpoint (initiation, planning, executing, controlling, or closing), or they can fail from a weakness in project dynamics (scope, time cost management, quality management, human resources management, communications, or risk). Project management covers a wide range of topics and issues and is defined as the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to a broad range of activities to reach a predetermined goal or objective. (See Figure 11.1.
INPUTS.
Mission . Team . Resources . Project . Management Skills.
Projects. Project Goals and Objectives.
Role of project manager.
It may also be concluded that a considerable number of projects fail from not having a skilled and experienced project manager to manage the process. This hole is quickly being filled, however, as companies recognize that successfully managed projects increase productivity, yield a greater return on investment, increase profits, and improve customer service.
But project management isn’t new. Project management coordination and planning skills have been used for centuries—even as far back as the Roman Empire. Project management has also almost always dealt with the same elemental challenges: incomplete project specifications and scope definition, insufficient labor, unforeseen challenges, or unsure funding. The role and job title of the person responsible for managing these elements, however, the project manager, was not recognized until the twentieth century.
Another reason for the importance of the role of a project manager is the increasing rate of change in the workplace. Project management skills transcend corporations and industries; with change happening at such rapid rates, whether in technology, business, or construction, project managers are increasingly in demand.
It is important, however, for all project participants to understand the process of project management. As project-based change increases, every project participant from part-time team member to executive sponsor will be more effective in their role if they understand the process of project management.
Project scope and work breakdown structure.
Let’s begin with a discussion of the vocabulary and processes that encompass project management. The project scope involves subdividing the major project deliverables into smaller, more manageable components. Often this includes the work breakdown structure (WBS). The project scope is a deliverable-oriented grouping of project elements that define the total scope of the project. The WBS is almost like a giant task list of what needs to get done to successfully complete the project. It is often used to help confirm a common understanding of what the project scope is. It has the ability to transform one large, unique, and sometimes mystifying job into many small, more manageable tasks.
The WBS helps to define deliverables and figure out the tasks that need to get done. The WBS is also a useful tool to help monitor the progress, verify the schedule estimates, and build project teams necessary to complete the project. It lists the tasks that need to get done in a prioritized, hierarchical structure in relation to what needs to get done in the overall project. Each task should be specific enough to be able to put a person’s name next to it who will be able to execute the given activity.
Some of the items on the list will be open-ended tasks. Openended tasks include activities that we are familiar with doing, but don’t have a specific deliverable or hard product being produced. Examples of open-ended activities that might appear in a WBS are things such as “research,” “perform analysis,” or “interview.” Another type of task might be on the list to perform but need more clarification. “Database” might be listed, but what does that really mean? Does it mean sort the database? Clean the database? Load the database? Test the database?
You can see that just putting the word “database” on the list could refer to numerous activities; therefore, a greater level of detail about the task needs to be achieved.
The WBS should include a plan for the project and output quality.
Be sure to take the time necessary to get the quality high enough to meet expectations. It is cheaper to design and produce a product correctly the first time than it is to go in after development is in process and fix it. Steve McConnell, in his book Rapid Development, pointed out that if a defect caused by incorrect requirements is fixed in the construction or maintenance phase, it can cost 50 to 200 times as much to fix as it would have in the requirements phase. Each hour spent on quality assurance activities such as design review saves 3 to 10 hours on downstream costs.
Product scope and project scope have different qualities. The product scope can remain constant throughout the process of the project, while the project scope can change and evolve and expand. The project may also focus on the creation and delivery of a service. If there is no detailed product description, then creating one should be the sole deliverable for a project. Defining what the project constraints are (costs, schedule, resources, material, etc.) won’t have any meaning unless the product specification is complete. This makes sense because if the project team doesn’t have a clear idea of the product specification, they don’t know what they’re building or what they’re working toward.
Given that a product scope is understood, then, it is important to define what the deliverables are. What is being produced? Is it a product? A service? A new design? Fixing an old problem? It is critical that the team know what they are working toward and it helps to create boundaries and focus the team on the outcome.
Deliverables can be either end deliverables or intermediate deliverables. The end deliverable is what the final outcome of the project is expected to be. The intermediate deliverables are the small pieces of the puzzle that help the team get there. An intermediate deliverable, for example, could be the creation and description of a target market, when the end deliverable is the mass media advertising campaign for a product or service.
Setting project objectives is critical. They serve as quantifiable criteria that must be met in order for the project to be deemed successful. Project objectives should be specific and measurable so that they can provide the basis for agreement on the project. Measurability provides supporting detail that may be necessary to make a strong case for a particular outcome.
Project scope management plan.
When the product scope is understood, a project scope management plan needs to be created. This plan describes how the project scope will be managed and, therefore, any changes in scope will be integrated into the project. It also serves as an assessment of the anticipated stability of the project scope. In other words, it documents the characteristics of the product or service that the project was undertaken to create. As shown in Figure 11.2, the project scope management plan begins at initiation of the project and moves through scope planning, scope definition, scope verification, and scope change control (should this be needed).
The initiation phase includes beginning to develop the scope statement. The scope statement serves to put some boundaries on the project and keeps the scope from increasing as you delve into the meat of the project, which is a common phenomenon. The scope statement should describe the major activities of the project so clearly that it can be used to assess if extra work is necessary as the project process gets going. More simply, it serves to detail exactly what has been agreed to from the beginning. It is understood that changes in the project scope require changes in the cost, schedule, and resource projections as these assumptions are made during the project planning and scope writing.
Additionally, the scope statement can be used to help define where the project’s placement is in a larger picture. This is the ideal place to clarify the relationship of this project to other projects in the total product development effort.
Initiation. Scope Planning. Scope Definition. Scope Verification. Scope Change Control.
Also considered in the initiation phase is the overall strategic plan of the organization. All projects should be supportive of the performing organization’s goals, and having a strategic plan helps to make this possible. The project selection criteria are also very important to clarify in this phase. This is a good time to look at historical information and look to the results of previous project selection and performance.
The elements included in the initiation phase may include creating a project charter. The project charter is the product description and business needs the project addresses. Identifying and assigning the project manager should also be one of the results of the initial phase. It is important as well during this phase to identify constraints that will limit the project team’s options and also identify the assumptions. The assumptions can include factors that will be considered true, real, or certain during the planning process and that will be more rigorously examined in the risk analysis phase of project planning.
The scope planning phase includes the scope statement (scope justification, project product description, project deliverables, project objectives, and supporting detail).
When the major project deliverables are subdivided into small, more manageable components, the phase is called scope definition. The scope definition phase is also where you’ll see the creation of the WBS.
The scope verification portion of the system is what may be used to determine if the job is complete. The process can actually proceed as soon as a deliverable is complete and can be measured, examined, and tested. Once verification is attained, you can move on to the next component of the project.
After formal acceptance of the scope (scope verification), scope change control takes place. It is likely that changes will occur after a project is under way. This phase influences factors that create scope changes to ensure that the changes being made are beneficial.
A change control system will include:
Recognizing that a change is needed.
Reviewing all requested changes.
Ensuring that any change is beneficial.
Evaluating the benefits of the requested change.
Identifying alternatives that would achieve the same result.
Identifying all impacted tasks.
Analyzing these impacts and how they affect project perfor mance in terms of time, money, and scope.
Approving or rejecting the request.
Communicating the approved changes to all stakeholders.
Changing the baselines for performance monitoring.
Updating the project scope definition.
Implementing the change.
Documenting the change.
It is critical that all change gets documented by the client prior to the change taking place. The agreement should detail not only what changes need to take place, but also how each change will occur and what the impact of the change will be on the overall scope.
Jeb Riordan created a useful flowchart to describe the typical change control process. It is easier to picture how the decision flows through question points on a diagram, and it makes the change control process seem a lot more intuitive.
Once a need for a change has been identified, the request for change needs to be reviewed. If it is deemed a bad idea to make the change suggested at that time, the issue is registered but there is no change order created or acted upon. If it is deemed a good idea to make the change at the time, it must be determined if the impending change will impact the project plan. If it will not impact the project plan, you can go ahead and make the change. If it will impact the plan, the impact must be assessed and clearly identified, a change order must be prepared outlining the anticipated changes, and then that change order must be approved before the change can be made.
Project schedule.
In order to adjust for things such as scope changes, we need to be sure that there is a solid project schedule in place. The project scheduling process needs to include the activity definition, activity sequencing, activity duration estimating, schedule development, and the schedule control.
Examples of the primary tools used for project scheduling are Gantt charts, or Critical Path Method (CPM), PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique). Critical Path Method and PERT are powerful tools that help you to schedule and manage complex projects.
They were developed in the 1950s to control large defense projects, and have been used routinely since then.
Gantt charts are simply a visual look at the major activities involved in a project, arranged so that the viewer will see the time-based relationships of the component parts of the project. Figure 11.3 is a Gantt chart showing the activities involved in the purchase and implementation of a new accounting software system.
CPM helps you to plan out all tasks that must be completed as part of a project, and it acts as a basis both for preparation of a schedule and for resource planning. When you are managing a project, this tool can help you monitor the achievement of your project goals to date. It also helps you to see where you can take action to put a project back on track if it has fallen behind or deviated from its course.
CPM is useful because it:
Identifies tasks that must be completed on time for the whole project to be completed on time.
Identifies which tasks can be delayed if necessary if re sources need to be allocated somewhere else to catch up on missed tasks.
Helps to identify the minimum length of time needed to com plete the project.
PERT is a variation on CPM that takes a slightly more skeptical view of time estimates made for each project stage. To use it, you estimate the shortest possible time each activity will take, the most likely length of time, and the longest time that might be taken if the activity takes longer than expected.
Project scheduling essentially takes the definition of what the project is and breaks it down into smaller, more manageable tasks. It also identifies the relationships of each of the tasks to the other tasks.
It illuminates in complete detail the actions that need to take place in order for the project to get accomplished. It then ensures the necessary order by using information about the activity duration as well as any external constraints that might exist. Finally, the project schedule ensures that the deadlines are met given the identified constraints such as labor, materials, and other resources.
Project budget.
The next step is figuring out the project budget. Project budget estimates can be derived by using a variety of techniques ranging from pure estimation based on experience and knowledge to complicated financial models. An accurate, detailed cost estimate is necessary as soon as the project concept gets approval. The cost estimate created will become the standard for keeping the project costs in line and can be used by the client, the management team, the project manager, and the project management team.
A detailed and accurate budget also helps forecast the project funding needed and during which phase it will be needed. As the project progresses, the cost information will also be used to help control the project, monitor the progress, identify potential problems, and help to find solutions.
The calculation of the budget isn’t what’s difficult. We all know that it’s just a matter of adding up the numbers that we have associated with the costs of performing different tasks. The trick is getting those numbers to be as accurate as possible before the expenses have been incurred. The source of data for the budget, then, is where most of the time will be spent when it comes to the budgeting process.
The first thing to think about is the internal labor costs. One of the biggest oversights that occur during the budgeting process is leaving out the cost of internal staff. This can be derived by using the detailed planning model to figure how much of each person’s time is going to be needed to get the job done. Then you can use the burdened labor rate. Although the hourly rate of each salaried employee may vary, you can look to your finance department to create a standard burdened labor rate. This rate is calculated by taking the average cost of an employee to the firm. It includes the costs for wages, benefits, and overhead. Most company finance departments keep this established rate on record so it is not necessary to calculate and recalculate it from the project manager’s point of view.
Getting an accurate cost for internal equipment used can be more complicated. If you will be purchasing and using equipment for a single project, then it is fairly straightforward to add up the cost of each piece and add it to the budget. If, however, you will be using equipment that gets used on multiple projects, you should use a unit cost approach to estimate how much of the equipment will be used for a specific project. One way to do this is to spread the cost over the time period of the expected use. Do you expect to use the equipment on 5 projects? 10? 50? Based on these assumptions you can create a unit cost, or hourly rate, for using the equipment, which can be applied to a project estimate.
External labor cost and equipment costs are usually simpler to figure out. This is because contractors have already calculated their costs for products or services ahead of time. Sometimes these rates can be negotiated. Under a cost-plus contract, the labor and equipment rates are written into the contract and the vendor bills the project for the amount of labor, equipment, and materials supplied to the project.
Once this has been figured out, you just add it to the overall cost estimate for your budget.
The final piece to consider is the cost of materials. Material costs will vary widely depending on the nature of the project that you are working on. The range can expand from materials needed to construct a building to the materials needed to develop software. The percentage of the total costs attributed to materials varies just as widely. The first place to look for the expected costs of materials is in the product specification or service plan.
Once the project’s schedule and costs have been determined, you may generate a cash flow projection. Again, it is important to realize that estimating the costs that go into the budget is the responsibility of all of the project stakeholders. A cooperative approach yields more accurate results and it helps to reduce the uncertainty of the project.
Risk management.
Next, it is time to manage the project’s risk. Not many project managers realize that managing risk is their primary responsibility, but they tend to do it without even thinking about it. Risk management is the total process to identify, control, and minimize the impact of uncertain events. The objective of the risk management program is to systematically reduce risk to increase the likelihood of having the project objectives met. In effect, as project managers know, all project management is risk management. As mentioned earlier, outside obstacles are assessed and accounted for when planning the project.
The project definition takes into account a lot of risk management activities. The project definition establishes what the goals and constraints for the project will be. In this process it is critical to identify what the risks for your project are. You must identify the sources of risk in your project. You must then develop a response to each risk by examining the potential damage and the degree of likelihood of that risk taking place. Finally, you should implement the strategies that you develop as a response and monitor the effects of whether these changes will impact the project. If there are changes that need to take place, be sure that all stakeholders are again apprised of the situation and notified of what changes will take place.
At the end of this whole process, you end up with a solid project plan. You have identified the key or required staff; the key risks including their constraints and assumptions (and have planned responses for each); the scope and schedule management plans; the project charter; a description of the project management approach or strategy; a scope statement that includes project deliverables and the project objectives; WBS to the level at which control will be exercised; cost estimates, scheduled start dates, and responsibility assignments that stem from WBS; performance measurement baselines for schedule and cost; and finally, major milestones and target dates for each.
Project estimation.
Although estimation, by definition, is making an attempt at forecasting the future and trying to predict the time and money necessary to produce the stated result, it is important for your stakeholders that you get good at accurately estimating when a project will be done and what will be needed to ensure its completion. This means getting the right people on board to help make the estimate, making estimates based on personal or institutional experience, and taking the time and making the effort required to make good estimates.
One technique used for estimating is called phased estimating.
This means that cost and scheduling commitments need to be given for only one phase of the project at a time. Not surprisingly, this is a favorite estimating technique among project managers because it doesn’t require the whole project time line and costs to be determined all at once, which is considered unrealistic for some; they prefer to base the future phases of the project on how the first one or two phases go. The uncertainty that every project faces at the beginning diminishes as the project progresses. This approach takes place by first making an order-of-magnitude estimate for the full development life cycle, with a detailed estimate for the first phase of the project.
The conclusion of the first phase also means the first meeting of a phase gate. Phase gates specifically refer to decision points for evaluating whether the project development should continue. Reaching the first phase gate also means the beginning of the second cycle or phase of the estimate. Once sign-off has been granted for the first phase, another order-of-magnitude estimate is made, along with a detailed estimate of the second phase. And the cycle continues like this.
Through this process, the order-of-magnitude estimate gets more and more accurate and each phase requires assessment and evaluation in order to continue.
Another technique used in project estimation is called apportioning, or top-down, estimating. With this method, a total project estimate is given and then a percentage of the total project is assigned to each of the phases and tasks of the project. The WBS can provide a good solid breakdown for using this estimation technique.
In order for this method to be as accurate as possible, however, it is critical that, first, the overall project estimate is correct; otherwise the project estimates for the smaller pieces won’t be accurate. Second, apportioning is based on a formula derived from historical data/experience of other similar projects. Because of this, it is critical that the previous projects be very similar to the project at hand. This technique is rarely as accurate as a bottom-up approach, but can be very valuable when assessing whether to select a project to pursue.
Parametric estimates are made when a basic unit of work is created to be used as a multiplier to size the project as a whole. The estimates are useful for figuring the entire project scope or cost on a smaller scale and applying it to the whole. It is created by using historical data of how long something took or what resources were used, and it requires that the estimator develop a parametric formula. Parametric formulas take into account certain variables that might occur during the working process. Will the process be faster or slower at some times than others due to holidays, seasonal influences, or other projects that need to be worked on? Will there be a shortage or surplus of materials for any reason? Parametric estimates are more accurate when done at lower levels, but they can still be useful when used to measure order-of-magnitude estimates. It is most useful when used during the construction phase of the product life cycle because it allows you to really detail the product specification, and this feeds into a more accurate estimate.
The most accurate type of estimation is bottom-up estimating.
Bottom-up estimating, however, also requires the most amount of work because it makes an estimation of all of the detailed tasks individually and then adds them all up for the project as a whole. Although the most accurate form of estimating, this level of detail usually isn’t available at the very beginning of the project, so it’s best used for building the detailed phase estimates.
Project team.
During the estimation phase, it is critical that you know the skill sets of the team with whom you will be working. You must know the expertise of others, even if you don’t know them personally, and be able to ask for help. It is also important to look at what technology will be required to complete the project. Does it rely on new technology? Will you need members of your team to have a new skill set to accommodate for the technology? What is the reliability of the technology you will be using?
The team of people you will be working with on your project management team is probably the most critical ingredient of the whole process. It is the responsibility of the project manager to motivate and guide the team to complete the project at hand. This may oblige the leader to administer a variety of management techniques to develop a cohesive group. Change in the process must also be aptly managed.
Managing the execution of the project requires being constantly aware of the project deliverables, project objectives, project schedule, project costs, and the quality. Monitoring all of this will allow the project manager to quickly assess when the work of the team is deviating from the original plan and allow the manager to bring the team back on track.
Project managers have a large task. They must be able to define and manage quality throughout the project. They must be able to accurately determine the human resource requirements and be able to manage them. They must know how to develop and manage project planning and costs using the techniques discussed in this example.
They must be effective communicators with all stakeholders—senior management, team members, clients, outsourced resources, and so on—and they need to be familiar with the supply and contract management techniques.
The most successful leaders, however, create outstanding teams.
A successful team has numerous links between team members and frequent and comfortable communication among them. It is important not to overly rely on one person too much with critical information, and put the project at risk by consolidation of data or information. Just as it is important not to rely too heavily on one individual, it is critical that there isn’t someone in the middle who slows down communication or decision making. It is best to allow forums to be created to draw in resources as needed for decision-making purposes. Finally, you should always make an effort to look outside your own beliefs to try to ascertain another perspective on what’s going on.
True project leadership means looking outside of what your interests and outlook are and trying to approach the project from an unbiased perspective. It might sound simple, but it’s more difficult than you might think.
In an effort to communicate effectively, the project team should make responsibility or task assignments and deadlines very clear from the beginning. They need to emphasize, again, the importance of communicating with all of the stakeholders: the managers and clients throughout the execution of the project. Expectations should be stated and effectively managed throughout the process so that surprises or disappointments are kept to an absolute minimum. It is also important that at completion the project is properly closed out.
Reporting.
Close-out reporting is possibly the most neglected activity in project management. When the project is complete, it is tempting to have the final product speak for itself. What has been found, however, is that closing-out activities can bring a high return to the project managers.
The closing out of a project can bring closure to the project in the eyes of the stakeholders and can also provide an excellent learning opportunity. It provides an opportune time to take a poll of the project participants and find out how they perceived the process. What can you change/improve next time as the project manager? Did you learn anything about how the estimation process was done? What did the participants perceive to have gone well?
One way to keep all of these learning points from surfacing all at once at the end of the project is to measure the progress of the project.
This is also referred to as project control. Part of successfully controlling a project is to have project performance measures. These measures indicate when tasks have been accomplished. It helps you to measure whether you’ve completed what you thought you would by the dates previously established.
You can also take a measurement referred to as earned value reporting, or sometimes earned value analysis, which is a method for measuring project performance. The method takes into account the planned and actual costs for all completed tasks and compares them.
It combines cost and schedule status to provide a complete current picture of the project. It indicates how much of the budget should have been spent in view of the amount of work done so far, and the baseline cost for the task, assignment, or resource. There are various ways of calculating the earned value reporting that take into account variables such as the budgeting cost of work performed, the actual cost of work performed, the cost variance percentage, and the estimate of completion.
Summary.
Project management in its simplest form of understanding is all about planning. Proper planning can be somewhat complicated, and to do it well requires delving into what needs to be done from the very beginning.
Although the practice of project management has been around for centuries, scholars and project management professionals are still studying how to make project management better. The value of face-to-face interaction does not deteriorate, even with the deployment of virtual project management teams. Projects require leaders who are trained in both business and technology and have teams with qualified project management professionals when possible.
There are various preferences and cultural values that weigh different communication techniques and interpersonal skills differently.
Perceptions of communication techniques will have an impact on the end user and the end result of the project, so it is important to clarify preferences at the beginning.
References.
Armstrong, Dan. “Six Degrees of Project Management.” Baseline (Feb ruary, 2004).
Godbout, Jaques. “Project Management Mainstays.” CMA Management (December/January 2004).
McConnell, Steve. Rapid Development. Seattle: Microsoft Press, 1996.
Ramirez, Holley, and Michelle Meyer. “Project Management: Is It Right for You?” Certification (March 2004).
Riordan, Jeb. “Scope Management.” Project (December, 2001).
Salidis, Frank. “Taming the Wild Project.” Mobile Radio Technology Sourcebook (December 2004). www dot iwce-mrt dot com.
Tesch, Debbie, Timothy Kloppenbourg, and John Stemmer. “Project Management Learning: What Literature Has to Say.” Project Man agement Journal (December 2003).
“Unwritten Rules of Project Management.” Times (Malaysia) (February 19, 2004).
Verzuh, Eric. The Fast Forward MBA in Project Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999.
Chapter 11, Project Management.
Summary.
Project management in its simplest form of understanding is all about planning. Proper planning can be somewhat complicated, and to do it well requires delving into what needs to be done from the very beginning.
Although the practice of project management has been around for centuries, scholars and project management professionals are still studying how to make project management better. The value of face-to-face interaction does not deteriorate, even with the deployment of virtual project management teams. Projects require leaders who are trained in both business and technology and have teams with qualified project management professionals when possible.
There are various preferences and cultural values that weigh different communication techniques and interpersonal skills differently.
Perceptions of communication techniques will have an impact on the end user and the end result of the project, so it is important to clarify preferences at the beginning.
In this chapter we explore a concept and a practice that has grown in importance as organizations have become more complex and are continuously evolving and implementing new ideas, products, and services or seek to improve existing ones. An organization will create a project as a way to focus resources on an opportunity or issue and to serve as a way to effectively organize its efforts to achieve a specific goal or objective. In a small firm, practice, or business, a project may be the installation of a new accounting software system or the introduction of a new product or service. In large, complex organizations, several projects may be in play at the same time, with some midlevel managers whose only responsibility is the management of a stream of these short-term assignments. In the dynamic nature of today’s organizational environment, project management is an important concept and tool to understand and effectively implement.
According to the Project Management Institute (PMI), 74 percent of all projects fail. The projects can fail from a processes standpoint (initiation, planning, executing, controlling, or closing), or they can fail from a weakness in project dynamics (scope, time cost management, quality management, human resources management, communications, or risk). Project management covers a wide range of topics and issues and is defined as the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to a broad range of activities to reach a predetermined goal or objective. (See Figure 11.1.
INPUTS.
Mission . Team . Resources . Project . Management Skills.
Projects. Project Goals and Objectives.
Role of project manager.
It may also be concluded that a considerable number of projects fail from not having a skilled and experienced project manager to manage the process. This hole is quickly being filled, however, as companies recognize that successfully managed projects increase productivity, yield a greater return on investment, increase profits, and improve customer service.
But project management isn’t new. Project management coordination and planning skills have been used for centuries—even as far back as the Roman Empire. Project management has also almost always dealt with the same elemental challenges: incomplete project specifications and scope definition, insufficient labor, unforeseen challenges, or unsure funding. The role and job title of the person responsible for managing these elements, however, the project manager, was not recognized until the twentieth century.
Another reason for the importance of the role of a project manager is the increasing rate of change in the workplace. Project management skills transcend corporations and industries; with change happening at such rapid rates, whether in technology, business, or construction, project managers are increasingly in demand.
It is important, however, for all project participants to understand the process of project management. As project-based change increases, every project participant from part-time team member to executive sponsor will be more effective in their role if they understand the process of project management.
Project scope and work breakdown structure.
Let’s begin with a discussion of the vocabulary and processes that encompass project management. The project scope involves subdividing the major project deliverables into smaller, more manageable components. Often this includes the work breakdown structure (WBS). The project scope is a deliverable-oriented grouping of project elements that define the total scope of the project. The WBS is almost like a giant task list of what needs to get done to successfully complete the project. It is often used to help confirm a common understanding of what the project scope is. It has the ability to transform one large, unique, and sometimes mystifying job into many small, more manageable tasks.
The WBS helps to define deliverables and figure out the tasks that need to get done. The WBS is also a useful tool to help monitor the progress, verify the schedule estimates, and build project teams necessary to complete the project. It lists the tasks that need to get done in a prioritized, hierarchical structure in relation to what needs to get done in the overall project. Each task should be specific enough to be able to put a person’s name next to it who will be able to execute the given activity.
Some of the items on the list will be open-ended tasks. Openended tasks include activities that we are familiar with doing, but don’t have a specific deliverable or hard product being produced. Examples of open-ended activities that might appear in a WBS are things such as “research,” “perform analysis,” or “interview.” Another type of task might be on the list to perform but need more clarification. “Database” might be listed, but what does that really mean? Does it mean sort the database? Clean the database? Load the database? Test the database?
You can see that just putting the word “database” on the list could refer to numerous activities; therefore, a greater level of detail about the task needs to be achieved.
The WBS should include a plan for the project and output quality.
Be sure to take the time necessary to get the quality high enough to meet expectations. It is cheaper to design and produce a product correctly the first time than it is to go in after development is in process and fix it. Steve McConnell, in his book Rapid Development, pointed out that if a defect caused by incorrect requirements is fixed in the construction or maintenance phase, it can cost 50 to 200 times as much to fix as it would have in the requirements phase. Each hour spent on quality assurance activities such as design review saves 3 to 10 hours on downstream costs.
Product scope and project scope have different qualities. The product scope can remain constant throughout the process of the project, while the project scope can change and evolve and expand. The project may also focus on the creation and delivery of a service. If there is no detailed product description, then creating one should be the sole deliverable for a project. Defining what the project constraints are (costs, schedule, resources, material, etc.) won’t have any meaning unless the product specification is complete. This makes sense because if the project team doesn’t have a clear idea of the product specification, they don’t know what they’re building or what they’re working toward.
Given that a product scope is understood, then, it is important to define what the deliverables are. What is being produced? Is it a product? A service? A new design? Fixing an old problem? It is critical that the team know what they are working toward and it helps to create boundaries and focus the team on the outcome.
Deliverables can be either end deliverables or intermediate deliverables. The end deliverable is what the final outcome of the project is expected to be. The intermediate deliverables are the small pieces of the puzzle that help the team get there. An intermediate deliverable, for example, could be the creation and description of a target market, when the end deliverable is the mass media advertising campaign for a product or service.
Setting project objectives is critical. They serve as quantifiable criteria that must be met in order for the project to be deemed successful. Project objectives should be specific and measurable so that they can provide the basis for agreement on the project. Measurability provides supporting detail that may be necessary to make a strong case for a particular outcome.
Project scope management plan.
When the product scope is understood, a project scope management plan needs to be created. This plan describes how the project scope will be managed and, therefore, any changes in scope will be integrated into the project. It also serves as an assessment of the anticipated stability of the project scope. In other words, it documents the characteristics of the product or service that the project was undertaken to create. As shown in Figure 11.2, the project scope management plan begins at initiation of the project and moves through scope planning, scope definition, scope verification, and scope change control (should this be needed).
The initiation phase includes beginning to develop the scope statement. The scope statement serves to put some boundaries on the project and keeps the scope from increasing as you delve into the meat of the project, which is a common phenomenon. The scope statement should describe the major activities of the project so clearly that it can be used to assess if extra work is necessary as the project process gets going. More simply, it serves to detail exactly what has been agreed to from the beginning. It is understood that changes in the project scope require changes in the cost, schedule, and resource projections as these assumptions are made during the project planning and scope writing.
Additionally, the scope statement can be used to help define where the project’s placement is in a larger picture. This is the ideal place to clarify the relationship of this project to other projects in the total product development effort.
Initiation. Scope Planning. Scope Definition. Scope Verification. Scope Change Control.
Also considered in the initiation phase is the overall strategic plan of the organization. All projects should be supportive of the performing organization’s goals, and having a strategic plan helps to make this possible. The project selection criteria are also very important to clarify in this phase. This is a good time to look at historical information and look to the results of previous project selection and performance.
The elements included in the initiation phase may include creating a project charter. The project charter is the product description and business needs the project addresses. Identifying and assigning the project manager should also be one of the results of the initial phase. It is important as well during this phase to identify constraints that will limit the project team’s options and also identify the assumptions. The assumptions can include factors that will be considered true, real, or certain during the planning process and that will be more rigorously examined in the risk analysis phase of project planning.
The scope planning phase includes the scope statement (scope justification, project product description, project deliverables, project objectives, and supporting detail).
When the major project deliverables are subdivided into small, more manageable components, the phase is called scope definition. The scope definition phase is also where you’ll see the creation of the WBS.
The scope verification portion of the system is what may be used to determine if the job is complete. The process can actually proceed as soon as a deliverable is complete and can be measured, examined, and tested. Once verification is attained, you can move on to the next component of the project.
After formal acceptance of the scope (scope verification), scope change control takes place. It is likely that changes will occur after a project is under way. This phase influences factors that create scope changes to ensure that the changes being made are beneficial.
A change control system will include:
Recognizing that a change is needed.
Reviewing all requested changes.
Ensuring that any change is beneficial.
Evaluating the benefits of the requested change.
Identifying alternatives that would achieve the same result.
Identifying all impacted tasks.
Analyzing these impacts and how they affect project perfor mance in terms of time, money, and scope.
Approving or rejecting the request.
Communicating the approved changes to all stakeholders.
Changing the baselines for performance monitoring.
Updating the project scope definition.
Implementing the change.
Documenting the change.
It is critical that all change gets documented by the client prior to the change taking place. The agreement should detail not only what changes need to take place, but also how each change will occur and what the impact of the change will be on the overall scope.
Jeb Riordan created a useful flowchart to describe the typical change control process. It is easier to picture how the decision flows through question points on a diagram, and it makes the change control process seem a lot more intuitive.
Once a need for a change has been identified, the request for change needs to be reviewed. If it is deemed a bad idea to make the change suggested at that time, the issue is registered but there is no change order created or acted upon. If it is deemed a good idea to make the change at the time, it must be determined if the impending change will impact the project plan. If it will not impact the project plan, you can go ahead and make the change. If it will impact the plan, the impact must be assessed and clearly identified, a change order must be prepared outlining the anticipated changes, and then that change order must be approved before the change can be made.
Project schedule.
In order to adjust for things such as scope changes, we need to be sure that there is a solid project schedule in place. The project scheduling process needs to include the activity definition, activity sequencing, activity duration estimating, schedule development, and the schedule control.
Examples of the primary tools used for project scheduling are Gantt charts, or Critical Path Method (CPM), PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique). Critical Path Method and PERT are powerful tools that help you to schedule and manage complex projects.
They were developed in the 1950s to control large defense projects, and have been used routinely since then.
Gantt charts are simply a visual look at the major activities involved in a project, arranged so that the viewer will see the time-based relationships of the component parts of the project. Figure 11.3 is a Gantt chart showing the activities involved in the purchase and implementation of a new accounting software system.
CPM helps you to plan out all tasks that must be completed as part of a project, and it acts as a basis both for preparation of a schedule and for resource planning. When you are managing a project, this tool can help you monitor the achievement of your project goals to date. It also helps you to see where you can take action to put a project back on track if it has fallen behind or deviated from its course.
CPM is useful because it:
Identifies tasks that must be completed on time for the whole project to be completed on time.
Identifies which tasks can be delayed if necessary if re sources need to be allocated somewhere else to catch up on missed tasks.
Helps to identify the minimum length of time needed to com plete the project.
PERT is a variation on CPM that takes a slightly more skeptical view of time estimates made for each project stage. To use it, you estimate the shortest possible time each activity will take, the most likely length of time, and the longest time that might be taken if the activity takes longer than expected.
Project scheduling essentially takes the definition of what the project is and breaks it down into smaller, more manageable tasks. It also identifies the relationships of each of the tasks to the other tasks.
It illuminates in complete detail the actions that need to take place in order for the project to get accomplished. It then ensures the necessary order by using information about the activity duration as well as any external constraints that might exist. Finally, the project schedule ensures that the deadlines are met given the identified constraints such as labor, materials, and other resources.
Project budget.
The next step is figuring out the project budget. Project budget estimates can be derived by using a variety of techniques ranging from pure estimation based on experience and knowledge to complicated financial models. An accurate, detailed cost estimate is necessary as soon as the project concept gets approval. The cost estimate created will become the standard for keeping the project costs in line and can be used by the client, the management team, the project manager, and the project management team.
A detailed and accurate budget also helps forecast the project funding needed and during which phase it will be needed. As the project progresses, the cost information will also be used to help control the project, monitor the progress, identify potential problems, and help to find solutions.
The calculation of the budget isn’t what’s difficult. We all know that it’s just a matter of adding up the numbers that we have associated with the costs of performing different tasks. The trick is getting those numbers to be as accurate as possible before the expenses have been incurred. The source of data for the budget, then, is where most of the time will be spent when it comes to the budgeting process.
The first thing to think about is the internal labor costs. One of the biggest oversights that occur during the budgeting process is leaving out the cost of internal staff. This can be derived by using the detailed planning model to figure how much of each person’s time is going to be needed to get the job done. Then you can use the burdened labor rate. Although the hourly rate of each salaried employee may vary, you can look to your finance department to create a standard burdened labor rate. This rate is calculated by taking the average cost of an employee to the firm. It includes the costs for wages, benefits, and overhead. Most company finance departments keep this established rate on record so it is not necessary to calculate and recalculate it from the project manager’s point of view.
Getting an accurate cost for internal equipment used can be more complicated. If you will be purchasing and using equipment for a single project, then it is fairly straightforward to add up the cost of each piece and add it to the budget. If, however, you will be using equipment that gets used on multiple projects, you should use a unit cost approach to estimate how much of the equipment will be used for a specific project. One way to do this is to spread the cost over the time period of the expected use. Do you expect to use the equipment on 5 projects? 10? 50? Based on these assumptions you can create a unit cost, or hourly rate, for using the equipment, which can be applied to a project estimate.
External labor cost and equipment costs are usually simpler to figure out. This is because contractors have already calculated their costs for products or services ahead of time. Sometimes these rates can be negotiated. Under a cost-plus contract, the labor and equipment rates are written into the contract and the vendor bills the project for the amount of labor, equipment, and materials supplied to the project.
Once this has been figured out, you just add it to the overall cost estimate for your budget.
The final piece to consider is the cost of materials. Material costs will vary widely depending on the nature of the project that you are working on. The range can expand from materials needed to construct a building to the materials needed to develop software. The percentage of the total costs attributed to materials varies just as widely. The first place to look for the expected costs of materials is in the product specification or service plan.
Once the project’s schedule and costs have been determined, you may generate a cash flow projection. Again, it is important to realize that estimating the costs that go into the budget is the responsibility of all of the project stakeholders. A cooperative approach yields more accurate results and it helps to reduce the uncertainty of the project.
Risk management.
Next, it is time to manage the project’s risk. Not many project managers realize that managing risk is their primary responsibility, but they tend to do it without even thinking about it. Risk management is the total process to identify, control, and minimize the impact of uncertain events. The objective of the risk management program is to systematically reduce risk to increase the likelihood of having the project objectives met. In effect, as project managers know, all project management is risk management. As mentioned earlier, outside obstacles are assessed and accounted for when planning the project.
The project definition takes into account a lot of risk management activities. The project definition establishes what the goals and constraints for the project will be. In this process it is critical to identify what the risks for your project are. You must identify the sources of risk in your project. You must then develop a response to each risk by examining the potential damage and the degree of likelihood of that risk taking place. Finally, you should implement the strategies that you develop as a response and monitor the effects of whether these changes will impact the project. If there are changes that need to take place, be sure that all stakeholders are again apprised of the situation and notified of what changes will take place.
At the end of this whole process, you end up with a solid project plan. You have identified the key or required staff; the key risks including their constraints and assumptions (and have planned responses for each); the scope and schedule management plans; the project charter; a description of the project management approach or strategy; a scope statement that includes project deliverables and the project objectives; WBS to the level at which control will be exercised; cost estimates, scheduled start dates, and responsibility assignments that stem from WBS; performance measurement baselines for schedule and cost; and finally, major milestones and target dates for each.
Project estimation.
Although estimation, by definition, is making an attempt at forecasting the future and trying to predict the time and money necessary to produce the stated result, it is important for your stakeholders that you get good at accurately estimating when a project will be done and what will be needed to ensure its completion. This means getting the right people on board to help make the estimate, making estimates based on personal or institutional experience, and taking the time and making the effort required to make good estimates.
One technique used for estimating is called phased estimating.
This means that cost and scheduling commitments need to be given for only one phase of the project at a time. Not surprisingly, this is a favorite estimating technique among project managers because it doesn’t require the whole project time line and costs to be determined all at once, which is considered unrealistic for some; they prefer to base the future phases of the project on how the first one or two phases go. The uncertainty that every project faces at the beginning diminishes as the project progresses. This approach takes place by first making an order-of-magnitude estimate for the full development life cycle, with a detailed estimate for the first phase of the project.
The conclusion of the first phase also means the first meeting of a phase gate. Phase gates specifically refer to decision points for evaluating whether the project development should continue. Reaching the first phase gate also means the beginning of the second cycle or phase of the estimate. Once sign-off has been granted for the first phase, another order-of-magnitude estimate is made, along with a detailed estimate of the second phase. And the cycle continues like this.
Through this process, the order-of-magnitude estimate gets more and more accurate and each phase requires assessment and evaluation in order to continue.
Another technique used in project estimation is called apportioning, or top-down, estimating. With this method, a total project estimate is given and then a percentage of the total project is assigned to each of the phases and tasks of the project. The WBS can provide a good solid breakdown for using this estimation technique.
In order for this method to be as accurate as possible, however, it is critical that, first, the overall project estimate is correct; otherwise the project estimates for the smaller pieces won’t be accurate. Second, apportioning is based on a formula derived from historical data/experience of other similar projects. Because of this, it is critical that the previous projects be very similar to the project at hand. This technique is rarely as accurate as a bottom-up approach, but can be very valuable when assessing whether to select a project to pursue.
Parametric estimates are made when a basic unit of work is created to be used as a multiplier to size the project as a whole. The estimates are useful for figuring the entire project scope or cost on a smaller scale and applying it to the whole. It is created by using historical data of how long something took or what resources were used, and it requires that the estimator develop a parametric formula. Parametric formulas take into account certain variables that might occur during the working process. Will the process be faster or slower at some times than others due to holidays, seasonal influences, or other projects that need to be worked on? Will there be a shortage or surplus of materials for any reason? Parametric estimates are more accurate when done at lower levels, but they can still be useful when used to measure order-of-magnitude estimates. It is most useful when used during the construction phase of the product life cycle because it allows you to really detail the product specification, and this feeds into a more accurate estimate.
The most accurate type of estimation is bottom-up estimating.
Bottom-up estimating, however, also requires the most amount of work because it makes an estimation of all of the detailed tasks individually and then adds them all up for the project as a whole. Although the most accurate form of estimating, this level of detail usually isn’t available at the very beginning of the project, so it’s best used for building the detailed phase estimates.
Project team.
During the estimation phase, it is critical that you know the skill sets of the team with whom you will be working. You must know the expertise of others, even if you don’t know them personally, and be able to ask for help. It is also important to look at what technology will be required to complete the project. Does it rely on new technology? Will you need members of your team to have a new skill set to accommodate for the technology? What is the reliability of the technology you will be using?
The team of people you will be working with on your project management team is probably the most critical ingredient of the whole process. It is the responsibility of the project manager to motivate and guide the team to complete the project at hand. This may oblige the leader to administer a variety of management techniques to develop a cohesive group. Change in the process must also be aptly managed.
Managing the execution of the project requires being constantly aware of the project deliverables, project objectives, project schedule, project costs, and the quality. Monitoring all of this will allow the project manager to quickly assess when the work of the team is deviating from the original plan and allow the manager to bring the team back on track.
Project managers have a large task. They must be able to define and manage quality throughout the project. They must be able to accurately determine the human resource requirements and be able to manage them. They must know how to develop and manage project planning and costs using the techniques discussed in this example.
They must be effective communicators with all stakeholders—senior management, team members, clients, outsourced resources, and so on—and they need to be familiar with the supply and contract management techniques.
The most successful leaders, however, create outstanding teams.
A successful team has numerous links between team members and frequent and comfortable communication among them. It is important not to overly rely on one person too much with critical information, and put the project at risk by consolidation of data or information. Just as it is important not to rely too heavily on one individual, it is critical that there isn’t someone in the middle who slows down communication or decision making. It is best to allow forums to be created to draw in resources as needed for decision-making purposes. Finally, you should always make an effort to look outside your own beliefs to try to ascertain another perspective on what’s going on.
True project leadership means looking outside of what your interests and outlook are and trying to approach the project from an unbiased perspective. It might sound simple, but it’s more difficult than you might think.
In an effort to communicate effectively, the project team should make responsibility or task assignments and deadlines very clear from the beginning. They need to emphasize, again, the importance of communicating with all of the stakeholders: the managers and clients throughout the execution of the project. Expectations should be stated and effectively managed throughout the process so that surprises or disappointments are kept to an absolute minimum. It is also important that at completion the project is properly closed out.
Reporting.
Close-out reporting is possibly the most neglected activity in project management. When the project is complete, it is tempting to have the final product speak for itself. What has been found, however, is that closing-out activities can bring a high return to the project managers.
The closing out of a project can bring closure to the project in the eyes of the stakeholders and can also provide an excellent learning opportunity. It provides an opportune time to take a poll of the project participants and find out how they perceived the process. What can you change/improve next time as the project manager? Did you learn anything about how the estimation process was done? What did the participants perceive to have gone well?
One way to keep all of these learning points from surfacing all at once at the end of the project is to measure the progress of the project.
This is also referred to as project control. Part of successfully controlling a project is to have project performance measures. These measures indicate when tasks have been accomplished. It helps you to measure whether you’ve completed what you thought you would by the dates previously established.
You can also take a measurement referred to as earned value reporting, or sometimes earned value analysis, which is a method for measuring project performance. The method takes into account the planned and actual costs for all completed tasks and compares them.
It combines cost and schedule status to provide a complete current picture of the project. It indicates how much of the budget should have been spent in view of the amount of work done so far, and the baseline cost for the task, assignment, or resource. There are various ways of calculating the earned value reporting that take into account variables such as the budgeting cost of work performed, the actual cost of work performed, the cost variance percentage, and the estimate of completion.
Summary.
Project management in its simplest form of understanding is all about planning. Proper planning can be somewhat complicated, and to do it well requires delving into what needs to be done from the very beginning.
Although the practice of project management has been around for centuries, scholars and project management professionals are still studying how to make project management better. The value of face-to-face interaction does not deteriorate, even with the deployment of virtual project management teams. Projects require leaders who are trained in both business and technology and have teams with qualified project management professionals when possible.
There are various preferences and cultural values that weigh different communication techniques and interpersonal skills differently.
Perceptions of communication techniques will have an impact on the end user and the end result of the project, so it is important to clarify preferences at the beginning.
References.
Armstrong, Dan. “Six Degrees of Project Management.” Baseline (Feb ruary, 2004).
Godbout, Jaques. “Project Management Mainstays.” CMA Management (December/January 2004).
McConnell, Steve. Rapid Development. Seattle: Microsoft Press, 1996.
Ramirez, Holley, and Michelle Meyer. “Project Management: Is It Right for You?” Certification (March 2004).
Riordan, Jeb. “Scope Management.” Project (December, 2001).
Salidis, Frank. “Taming the Wild Project.” Mobile Radio Technology Sourcebook (December 2004). www dot iwce-mrt dot com.
Tesch, Debbie, Timothy Kloppenbourg, and John Stemmer. “Project Management Learning: What Literature Has to Say.” Project Man agement Journal (December 2003).
“Unwritten Rules of Project Management.” Times (Malaysia) (February 19, 2004).
Verzuh, Eric. The Fast Forward MBA in Project Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999.
MBA in a day. Chapter 10, Communications and Presentations.
Presentations can range from a short talk before a small group of acquaintances or colleagues to a lengthy speech to a group of strangers. No matter the audience or the setting, formal or informal, small or large, the best presentations leave the audience informed and interested. They want to know more about the subject matter and often have insightful comments and questions for the presenter. A bad presentation, in contrast, leaves the audience confused or bored and often makes them wonder why they wasted their time. A poor presentation detracts from the importance of the subject matter and can be detrimental to the reputation of the presenter.
In addition to length and format, presentations can also vary in style. The main purpose of a presentation is to communicate ideas and information. Effective means of communicating ideas and information can also vary and may include persuasion, instruction, inspiration, or entertainment.
Regardless of length, format, or purpose, presentations are an important and useful tool in all aspects of business. Given their importance, it is surprising that few classes are available on how to present more effectively. All too often associates are assigned the task of “giving a presentation” and then left to their own devices. No wonder so many individuals list public speaking as their greatest fear.
This chapter will assist you in becoming a better presenter by providing you with knowledge about the processes of developing an effective presentation style and format. This is accomplished by asking important questions and providing useful tips that will help in examining the different stages of the presentation process.
To present or not to present.
The first and most important question is whether this presentation is a choice or a requirement. If it is a choice you need to ask yourself some important questions before agreeing to present. Preparing for a presentation takes time. A rough estimate for an effective presentation is that it takes 30 to 60 minutes of preparation for each minute of delivery. Do you have enough focused time prior to the presentation to properly prepare? In addition, are you interested, excited, and sufficiently knowledgeable about the subject matter to deliver an effective and enthusiastic presentation? If the answer to either of these questions is a clear “no,” you should seriously consider turning down the offer to present.
Before the presentation.
Some time spent in planning will pay off. Not only will the presentation be better prepared, the planning process will increase your confidence and be reflected in a more convincing presentation performance.
Define the Parameters.
Knowing the parameters beforehand will limit uncertainties and surprises and make you better prepared to deliver a targeted, informative, and interesting presentation. The most important parameters are topic and theme, time, program, preservation, audience, place, and questions. Some of these parameters can be determined prior to the presentation. More than likely one or two of the later ones will change slightly by the day of the presentation. It is important shortly before the presentation to redefine the parameters to make sure that none of the changes will dramatically affect your presentation.
Topic and Theme. What will you be talking about? Will you be providing a general overview of this topic or highlights of recent activities? Where do you want to go in your presentation of this material?
Time. How much time do you have to make your presentation? It is a simple question to ask, but all too often a presenter finds himself or herself a number on the agenda or a name on the program. There may be a general sense that the talk will take 10 minutes or an hour, but no specifics are provided.
Program. Will there be other speakers presenting? How will the information in your presentation compare or contrast with the topics covered by other speakers? What is the order of the presentations? Are you expected to provide an exciting introduction to the program or a comprehensive summary?
Preservation. In the age of digital camcorders and cable television, presentations are often recorded or televised for future viewing or public consumption. If you think this could be the case with your presentation, ask. If your presentation is being taped, you should ask for a copy. This will be a valuable resource for reviewing your presentation and your presentation style. It will serve as a useful tool if you are asked to give a similar presentation at a later date.
Audience. To whom will you be presenting? Giving a talk about trees to a group of executives in the lumber industry would be significantly different from giving the same talk to the members of an environmental group. Research your audience beforehand. What is their background and how knowledgeable are they about your subject matter? What are they expecting from the presentation and how can you add value to their experience? Are they expecting to be informed, amused, or challenged? How many individuals are expected to attend your presentation? If you are presenting to a group or an organization, especially one with which you are unfamiliar, take a few moments to find out more about it. Simple and useful information can often be found on the organization’s web site or in one of its recent newsletters.
What issues are most important to the members? If the group often hosts presenters, look for references to past presenters. What did these presenters talk about, and how were they received?
Place. Where is the presentation going to take place? How are the acoustics of the space? What audio-video resources are available at this location? Will you be able to connect your laptop to the audio-video system at this location or will you need to load your program onto a computer already at the site? Will there be someone there to assist you with audio-video equipment? Will there be a stage, podium, microphone, table, chairs? Will the audience be seated facing you, or will they be seated around dinner tables? (If possible try to avoid big gaps between you and the audience. Make the setting as intimate as possible.) If you are using a screen for your presentation, where will this screen be located? (Try to get the screen set off to the side rather than in the center of the stage or on a back wall. This will allow you to reference it more easily and move around the stage more comfortably.
Question-and-Answer Component. Will there be questions at the end of the presentation? Will there be a moderator to take questions or will you be expected to handle them yourself? If there are several presenters, will questions be taken at the end of your presentation or after all the presenters have spoken?
Purpose.
Knowing your topic and theme is obviously important in delivering an effective presentation. Knowing why you are presenting, however, is equally important. After taking the time to analyze the audience and assess their needs, decide how these needs can best be met. Four common purposes for a presentation include persuasion, instruction, inspiration, and entertainment. Persuasion is a method for bringing an audience around to your point of view. Instruction is used to share basic information about your topic. Inspiration is effective when used during a change of process, procedure, or direction. Entertainment lightens the mood. Often these purposes are used to varying degrees in a presentation. The important point is that in preparing for your presentation you take a moment to think about what purpose is the most important and effective for your presentation and your audience. To help determine the purpose of your presentation, ask yourself what you want people in the audience to do as a result of having heard your presentation. What concepts do you want your audience to leave with?
Preparing Your Presentation.
As mentioned earlier, for an effective presentation you can expect to spend 30 to 60 minutes of preparation time for each minute of delivery. This means that to deliver a one-hour presentation, one can expect 30 to 60 hours of preparation. This is realistic given the research, preparation, and practice that must go into developing effective presentation materials.
In the current business environment it is often difficult to find time to focus on any one particular project. Interruptions are common, and it always takes a little extra time to mentally reengage and focus on what you were previously doing. If you want to give an engrossing presentation you need to dedicate your full attention to your presentation.
Schedule an appointment with yourself well ahead of your presentation date to make sure that time will be available. Forward your calls, turn off your cell phone and pager, resist the urge to check your e-mail, and put a Do Not Disturb sign on your door. Sometimes the best approach is to find a location to work on your presentation outside of your normal office environment.
Materials. After you have taken time to define the parameters and ask some important questions about the topic and purpose, it is time to begin assembling materials for your presentation. This process involves several steps including collection, organization, writing an outline and rough draft, editing and then reviewing the draft.
1. Collection. Pull together information that you think best suits your topic while addressing the purpose of your presentation.
What information do you have on hand? Is there any infor mation that is out of date or needs to be supplemented with additional materials? Is there anyone who may be able to pro vide you with further useful information?
2. Organization. Go through the materials you have collected and sort them into groups based on themes and topics.
3. Outline and rough draft. Develop a rough outline of your pre sentation. What topics and themes are appropriate for the beginning, middle, and end of your presentation? Expand on your outline to develop a rough draft of your presentation.
Remember, this is a rough draft. Try to determine what are going to be the key points of your presentation. Write several sentences addressing each of the themes and topics contained in your outline. Try to identify at least five key points. More than seven key points is an indication that you may be trying to convey too much information in your presentation. Does starting with these key points, in light of your overall theme and purpose, succinctly tell your audience what you are going to say? Taken together do they successfully summarize your presentation?
4. Editing. For many novice presenters, this part of the presenta tion process receives the least attention. Given time and en ergy constraints, one may decide to wing it with a rough draft in hand. For most, however, taking the time to edit the rough draft will be well worth the time and effort. It makes the dif ference between a fair presentation and an excellent one. Edit ing the rough draft is best begun by letting a bit of time to pass between the writing and the editing. This allows for a fresh approach. In the editing process think about how the presen tation can move from the written to the spoken word. This can be done by simplifying and solidifying the text. Cut un necessary ideas and words, remove or clarify any jargon, and shorten sentences. In addition, support your ideas with anec dotes and examples. At the end of this process you should have a written copy of what you’d like to say in your presenta tion and how you’d like to say it.
5. Review. Take the time to thoroughly review your edited draft.
Read though it out loud several times. If possible do this in front of friends or colleagues. Ask them for criticism and feed back on delivery, content, and style. Is the length appropriate for the time allotted? Are the ideas conveyed clearly? Are the overall theme and purpose maintained?
Preparing for Delivery.
Once the material has been pulled into a spoken format that stays true to the theme and purpose of the presentation, it is time to refine the delivery process. This can be done through the identification of key words and phrases, the selection of appropriate presentation aids, rehearsal, and preparing for questions.
Keys to an Effective Delivery. One of the most important keys to a successful presentation is eye contact. With a written draft in hand, some presenters will keep their eyes glued to the printed page and neglect to make eye contact with their audience. Unless you are delivering a very formal address or speaking to the press, sticking to the exact words of the draft can be unnecessary and stifling. For a more spontaneous and original approach, which involves more eye contact with the audience, it is useful to identify key words and phrases in the draft. These prompts will be the basis of your draft or your visual aids. Stepping away from the script, rehearse your presentation using these prompts. What do these key words and phrases convey? How do they fit into the presentation as a whole? Transfer these prompts to index cards and practice giving your presentation using these cards. Work toward linking these prompts together in your mind and using fewer and fewer of the cards. Continue practicing this process.
Presentation Aids. Even though the rough draft developed from the materials you collected is the main structure of your presentation, there are a variety of aids that can be used to support your topic, theme, and purpose. These include computer-generated graphics, multimedia, and overhead transparencies. There is nothing more disconcerting, however, than a presentation with poor presentation aids.
Instead of supporting your presentation, they detract from it by drawing the audience’s attention away from what you are saying. A Microsoft PowerPoint slide with a solid paragraph of text will accomplish one of two things: It will either put the audience immediately to sleep or pull all eyes to the screen for the next five minutes as people carefully try to comprehend the meaning of the words before them. Use presentation aids to support the presentation and encourage conversation between the audience and the presenter. Make sure to have a printed copy of each of your visual presentation aids in case there are problems with technology and you need to refer to an important number or point. Regardless of which aids you use in your presentation, it is important that all aids meet the following criteria:
Fit with the script you have developed from your rough draft.
They should either summarize or add value to what you are saying at a particular point in your presentation.
Flow with the script. Do the aids fit smoothly together with the topic, theme, and purpose as they develop in your script?
Are they appropriate for the size and type of audience and the venue where the presentation is taking place? Does an infor mal audience of five need a multimedia presentation?
Look clear, readable, and consistent from all places in the room where the presentation is to take place.
Display content simply and effectively. Cluttered and complex slides take attention away from your presentation.
Use appropriate graphics such as drawings, charts, and graph ics to support a particular point or issue.
Remember that the main structure of the presentation is the script, not the presentation aids. The simpler, clearer, and more precise you can make your presentation aids, the more effective they will be in supporting your topic, theme, and purpose. If you have questions about the quality and clarity of any presentations aids, rehearse your presentation for a trusted colleague, friend, or family member and ask for constructive feedback and criticism.
What’s the Point of PowerPoint? Advances in technology have increased the percentage of information we receive visually. This has been especially true since Microsoft brought PowerPoint into our lives and dramatically changed the nature of presentations. Microsoft released PowerPoint in 1987 and since then over 400 million copies have been installed on computers worldwide. Estimates are that it is used in approximately 30 million presentations each day. Some people are now surprised if they attend a presentation and PowerPoint is not part of the program. Many of us, however, look forward to a PowerPoint presentation with all the excitement of a root canal. A dark room, a blue background with white lettering, and we struggle to stay awake and wonder what all that information was about that was flashed up on the screen only minutes ago. PowerPoint is not a required element of a presentation, but it can be a useful tool. Remember, it’s not the slides themselves that are the problem so much as it is the content of the slides and how well the presenter uses them.
One of the biggest problems with PowerPoint is that although some organizations encourage its use there is rarely any emphasis on teaching people how to use it effectively. In addition, some companies and organizations require the use of a particular template or insist that the organization’s logo be present on each slide. This results in poorly designed and ineffective presentation aids that detract from a presenter’s ability to establish a personal relationship with the audience.
Some of these problems can be dealt with, while others must be worked around.
One way to counter these problems is to focus on PowerPoint basics rather than on text animation, clip art, video clips, and colorful backgrounds. The more complex a presentation, the more likely it will upstage the presenter. To keep slides visually simple, use a limit of six words to one line and five lines to a slide. Also use no more than three colors per slide.
PowerPoint should be used to provide a map of what you are talking about and to help provide context for the rest of your presentation. Don’t use PowerPoint as a surrogate for your speech. PowerPoint is not a teleprompter. In fact, putting less material on a slide can provide a unique opportunity for discussion, but make sure that you know the material you are presenting so as to fill in the details. When working with the program make sure that you know the technology well: What cable goes where? How do you advance a slide? These questions should be answered before you enter the room. Use the “Notes” view of PowerPoint to write out what you’d like to say in your presentation. This will serve as a valuable check in making sure that what is shown on the slide directly relates to what you are saying. In addition, it preserves a more detailed copy of your presentation to share with others or to review at a later date. Don’t spend too much time on PowerPoint, though, especially if you are not an expert with the program; time can be better spent working with the core materials of your presentation and rehearsing your delivery. Minimize the number of slides you use in a presentation. The fewer slides the better. If there is additional material that needs to be shared, use handouts.
Learn to use the “B” key, which will black out the screen, giving your audience a chance to shift their focus away from the screen and back to the most important part of the presentation: you.
If you are comfortable with PowerPoint and feel that your presentation of the basics is sufficiently covered, take a step or two away from the bullet point format presented in the PowerPoint templates. Alternatives do exist, and these can add meaning and depth to your presentation. Some examples of these are the use of PowerPoint’s text boxes, diagramming tools, and AutoShapes. If you want to use more graphics in your presentation, PowerPoint makes it easy to add images—a chart, table, or diagram. Think about symbols and analogies that can be used to emphasize your point.
Rehearsal. Similar to the process of editing the rough draft mentioned before, rehearsal is another part of the presentation process that is often skipped over. With a script, a few prompts, and some clever presentation aids, some presenters are ready to go. Once again, however, taking the time to rehearse the presentation will prove worthwhile in the long run. It will smooth over rough patches, reveal areas that may need further attention, and make you more comfortable about delivering the presentation. Rehearsing in front of others can be particularly beneficial and can bring up certain things that may have been overlooked earlier, such as a lack of eye contact, forgetting to smile, putting your hands in your pockets, or turning your back to the audience. If you want to make sure you are mindful of these issues during your presentation, write them down on an index card and place the card in front of you during your presentation.
During the rehearsal process take a moment to reflect on the style and content of your delivery. Does your presentation stay focused and avoid wandering off on tangents? Does it deliver a clear message to o address some of these issues. This will help maintain the focus and attention of your audience.
Preparing for Questions. Try to anticipate some of the questions your audience might ask. How can these questions be answered referencing your presentation or your visual aids? Are there any questions that might require a bit more research on your part?
The Eleventh Hour.
After defining the parameters, developing a script, and preparing the delivery, the time will finally come to give the presentation. There are several important things to think of in the hours before this moment arrives. To cover any last-minute problems, you should redefine the parameters, check yourself, double-check your materials, and arrive early.
Revisit the Presentation Parameters. As mentioned earlier, some of the parameters can be determined prior to the presentation; others will change slightly by the day of the presentation. It is important to take another look at the parameters to make sure that none of the changes will dramatically affect your presentation. Review the parameters and address any concerns or problems. Have there been any changes in the program or agenda? Has your presentation been moved in the program? Will someone be introducing you? Who is that person, and does he or she need anything from you prior to your introduction? Will someone be asking audience members to turn off their cell phones and pagers? You should request this if possible.
Another parameter that often changes the day of the presentation is the size of the audience, which will have a lot to do with how you choose to address the formality and style of your presentation.
For small groups of 5 to 10, the presentation will often be informal.
You can remain seated and work to develop a more personal relationship with your audience members. For an audience containing between 10 and 30 individuals, it is still possible to develop relationships, but the style will probably be more formal. With an audience of this size, visual presentation aids become useful. When the audience size is closer to 100, good presentation aids will become even more useful. An audience of this size will increase formality further and make it more difficult to develop personal relationships. When the audience size surpasses 100, your presentation will be more of a performance. It is best to use a microphone and try to exaggerate facial gestures and arm movements.
Changes and difficulties at the location of your presentation can be a real headache. Give yourself at least a couple of hours before the presentation to double-check the audio-video resources available at the location. Are they working? Are you still able to connect your laptop computer to the audio-video system? Do you need to load your presentation program onto an on-site computer? Do all of your computerbased audiovisuals run smoothly with the projector? Will you be using a remote to advance your slides? Who will help you with the audiovideo equipment if there are any problems? In addition, find out exactly where you will be presenting in the room. Where should you be prior to your presentation? Will a glass of water be available? Where are the restrooms?
Speaker’s Podium and Its Use. A podium has always been a central fixture of lecture halls and auditoriums. For the most part, if there is a podium in the room a presenter will often be drawn to it like a magnet. This is not always for the best. Although a podium can provide a sense of authority and a convenient place to rest one’s water glass, it can also serve as a barrier and hinder one’s efforts to connect with an audience. If a podium is present and there is a convener for the meeting, ask where presenters are expected to deliver their presentations. If the choice is up to you, think about the size and nature of your audience. With a smaller, less formal group, step away from the podium so that you can develop personal and individual relationships with your audience members. With a larger, more formal audience, a podium can serve as a means to minimize stage fright and help the audience focus on the presenter.
Speaking Attire. What are you going to wear for your presentation? With all the thought you have put into preparing what you will say and how you will say it, it is possible that this item has been sidelined until the last minute. The most important thing to keep in mind is that your choice of attire should not detract from the message you are delivering. Dressing conservatively and neatly will convey the professionalism of your presentation. In the minutes before your presentation make sure to double-check your appearance. And did you remember to turn off your cell phone and pager? In general when planning on what to wear for your presentation, consider these questions and the following list of do’s and don’ts from the Executive Communications Group at http://ecglink dot com.
Clothing “Do’s.
Always look professional.
Dress for the audience, the circumstance, the corporate culture, and yourself.
Wear clothes that fit.
Make sure your clothes are pressed.
Keep jackets buttoned (formal).
Err on the side of conservative.
Keep your hair neat and trimmed.
No hair in eyes.
For women: simple manicure, conservative makeup.
Mild (or no) fragrances.
Ties should be conservative and reach the middle of your belt buckle.
Lace-up shoes (usually black) with a suit.
A traditional starched business shirt, preferably white cotton with a suit.
Shirts with a simple collar and cuffs.
A formal but simple watch.
Hair, usually parted to one side, not reaching the top of your shirt collar.
Over-the-calf socks for men; hosiery should be skin color or darker for women.
Clothing “Don’ts”.
Wear clothes that talk louder than you do.
Undo multiple buttons on your shirt or blouse.
Wear clothing that no longer fits.
Wear wrinkled clothing.
Use fabrics that have a noticeable sheen.
Let hair fall in your face or obscure your eyebrows.
Have a hair style that requires continual adjustment.
Use a fragrance that smells from a distance.
Wear an ID badge when you’re presenting.
Wear busy patterns.
Wear garish ties.
Sport untrimmed facial hair (in some organizations, any facial hair can be career-inhibiting).
Wear shiny tie pins or clips or big belt buckles.
Wear visible jewelry (other than a watch and/or a single sim ple ring).
Wear distracting lapel pins for men, or dangles, bangles, or anything noisy for women.
Leave top shirt button open with a tie.
Wear short-sleeved dress shirts.
Wear short socks.
Wear loafers with a suit for men, or open-toe or ultrahigh-heel shoes for women.
Other Appearance Considerations. Your audience should be able to see your eyes clearly and easily. If you wear glasses, consider an antiglare coating for the lenses, which makes it easier to see your eyes.
Avoid any tint (unless medically necessary) and avoid heavy frames that can obscure your eyes. Any perfume, cologne, or perfumed grooming product should not be noticeable at normal business proximity. This means that you can exit the elevator and no one entering should be able to guess that you were there. Also, if you will be in a health care setting, you should not wear anything scented because colognes can aggravate certain medical conditions and allergies.
Importance of Backup Plans and Preplanning.
Do not make the mistake of leaving an important presentation aid behind at your home or office. Put the materials you will need for your presentation in a separate and secure location. Check them carefully the day before and the morning of your presentation to make sure that nothing is missing or broken. Bring a backup copy of your visual aids in a folder or on a CD in case something happens to the originals. Are there any handouts you want to provide to your audience during or after your presentation? If so, make sure that you have more than enough copies available well in advance of the presentation day. Do you have that index card of what to be mindful of when presenting (such as looking your audience in the eye)?
In order to do a last-minute check of the parameters, arrive early.
Knowing that the audio-video equipment and your laptop are working will put your mind at rest and add to your confidence about your presentation. Take a minute to look over your notes and run through your key words and phrases. In addition, and if it is appropriate given the size and formality of your audience, playing host before your presentation can be a good way to begin developing a relationship with your audience. Greet audience members individually as they arrive, and ask people if they are comfortable in their seats and can see the screen. Developing a personal relationship with your audience in this way will also help alleviate some of your stage fright.
Delivering the presentation.
The time has finally come to take the stage. There are a couple of important steps that can be taken to engage your audience and make your presentation informative and interesting. To overcome stage fright, remember that for most situations the audience wants the speaker to succeed. The audience is there because they want to hear what you have to say. Once you have been introduced to the audience, take a moment to establish your presence. This is not very difficult, but it does involve patience and a bit of confidence. It is done by taking a deep breath, looking your audience in the eye, relaxing your frame, and, most importantly, smiling.
The Introduction.
Even if someone has already taken the time to introduce you, it is helpful to take a moment to introduce yourself. This will quickly clarify a couple of important points. It lets your audience know who you are, what you have come to speak to them about, and what credentials you possess to speak on this subject. This also shapes the audience’s expectations of your presentation.
The best presentations are engaging as well as informative. In order to engage the audience, you need to begin developing a relationship. Get your audience’s attention by showing them that you understand their concerns and issues, that you are aware of their expectations, and that you respect their opinions. You can do this by asking an engaging question, doing something unexpected, or showing them a unique visual aid. This not only serves to break the ice but also shifts some of the attention from you back to the audience. One of the most effective tools for developing a relationship with your audience is to tell a story. This is not always easy, but an engaging story that is relevant to your presentation will get your audience’s attention quickly and effectively.
Sometimes, especially during a long presentation, the audience’s attention might begin to drift. Don’t hesitate to take a break during your presentation at an appropriate point. A five-minute break can do wonders for reviving your audience. You might even plan for a break during the initial stages of planning your presentation.
It is important to remember that when you are developing a relationship you need to be yourself. Use your emotion as well as the raw information contained in your presentation to convey your message.
Having a sense of conviction about what you are saying will serve not only to strengthen your relationship with the audience, but also to alleviate some of the initial stage fright you might feel.
Sometimes, through no fault of your own, you will find yourself in front of an unresponsive audience. It could be due to the poor quality of previous presenters or the fact that attendance was mandatory.
Perhaps it’s just that it’s 7 A.M. on a Monday morning after a three-day weekend. Regardless of the cause, no matter what you try, the audience refuses to display any emotion about your presentation. In this case it’s best to face facts and move on. Focus on your material and speak passionately and convincingly. Remember that just because the audience as a whole was cold and unresponsive, this is not necessarily true about the individuals that make up the audience. Given another time or space and some one-on-one contact, you may find that members of the audience were receptive to the topic, theme, and purpose of your presentation.
Body and Voice.
Having conviction in what you are saying will be conveyed not only in the words you use, but also in the way you stand and the way you speak. In establishing your presence you took a deep breath, relaxed a bit, and smiled. This process is meant to prepare your body and voice for the task ahead. During the presentation your stance should be erect and focused. Your feet should be shoulder-width apart and your weight should be balanced. Remember to keep your hands out of your pockets and look your audience in the eye. If you have your index card in front of you, you won’t make the mistake of forgetting this during your presentation. Avoid turning your back to your audience, don’t lean casually against a podium or table, and don’t fidget with clothing or jewelry. Your casual stance can come across as disinterested, unprepared, and disrespectful. This is not the impression you want to leave your audience with after the presentation is finished.
If you are having trouble looking your audience in the eye, look just over the head of the person sitting in the last row. In this way it will seem to people in the audience that you are looking directly at them. Another option is to look at the center of people’s faces rather than at their eyes. You can also select a few people around the room you feel comfortable making eye contact with and focus on them.
Choose the option that best suits your comfort level.
In addition to a straight and focused posture, your body language should also be positive and as natural as possible. When you are trying to share important information with family members or friends, how do you approach them? Do you move around and use hand gestures and facial expressions? Do you sometimes smile and laugh? Use this same approach with your audience. It will convey to them that you are confident, sincere, and respectful.
If you are uncertain about your posture and body language during your presentation, make a video recording of yourself during your rehearsals. Watch the video and keep an eye out for poor posture or body language and any tendencies that might detract from the focus of your presentation.
To be truly effective, however, an erect and confident posture combined with a positive and natural manner must be accompanied by an effective use of voice. One of the biggest problems that people experience when giving a presentation is that they begin speaking very quickly. The material rushes by in a blur and the audience is left squinting at the visual aids trying to figure out exactly what was said.
Speaking quickly also has a tendency to raise the pitch of your voice and wear you out quickly. There are a few steps that can be taken to guard against the tendency to speak too quickly. First, take a deep breath and relax. Breathing normally will help pace your speech. Second, listen to yourself. Do you seem to be rushing your sentences? Do you feel short of breath? Is the tone of your voice rising? If so, slow down, work on lowering your voice, and take a breath. Third, if, despite forewarning and practice, you still find yourself speaking too quickly, get a trusted colleague, friend, or family member to sit in the front row during your presentation. Visually check in with that person every couple of minutes and have him give you a subtle hand gesture if you need to slow down.
Another problem people often experience when giving a presentation is hesitating and saying “um” or “er” when they have lost their train of thought. A better approach is to pause, take a breath, and refocus. Be conscious of whether or not you have these tendencies. If you are unsure, make a recording of yourself giving your presentation.
While listening to the recording, follow along in your rough script.
How often do you hear yourself say “um” or “er”? Are there certain places in your presentation where you have more trouble than others?
Be aware of these problems and work to correct them.
An additional and important element to consider in regard to the use of your body and voice during your presentation is variation. This is part of the process of conveying emotion to your audience. While rehearsing your presentation, think about ways to change your body language or voice to convey the importance of particular material. Change the speed and tone of your voice and use inflections and emphasis.
One of the most effective ways of making a point during a presentation is the use of silence. After making a particularly important point or summarizing several previous points, pause for a moment and allow the audience to absorb and reflect on what you have said. Vary gestures and other body language to convey similar messages.
Humor.
The use of humor in your presentation is a great way to further build on your relationship with the audience and lighten and vary the mood.
Make sure you are confident in your use of humor and use it to support points in your presentation. Confident, relevant, and natural are the qualities you want to project to your audience. Avoid using humor to belittle or make fun of people in the audience. It will detract from the theme, topic, and purpose of your presentation. As the presenter, you are the only legitimate target for humor in the room.
Expect the Unexpected.
As Dwight D. Eisenhower once said, “In preparing for battle I have always found that plans are useless, but planning is indispensable.” Despite the importance and necessity of all the planning and practicing you have done in order to deliver a successful presentation, learn to expect the unexpected. This requires flexibility both in the way you relate to your audience as well as in the way you deliver your presentation. When mistakes happen, and they will, don’t try to ignore them; this just makes them more obvious. Acknowledge them, deal with them, and move on. This can be done by deflecting them or countering them with the use of light humor. Don’t, however, be overly sensitive to mistakes. In many cases the mistake may be small enough that the audience may not have even noticed it.
A level of flexibility should also be present in the delivery of your presentation. A presenter who is too polished, overly confident, or too prepared can alienate an audience. Be sensitive to how the audience is relating to you and be flexible enough in your presentation to lighten the mood or change the style of your delivery. Leaving room for improvisation will add an element of freshness, realism, and sincerity to your presentation.
Flexibility will also be important if there are any problems with your presentation aids. Instead of dwelling on any problems, try to address them and, if you cannot solve them quickly, make a humorous aside and talk directly to your audience. Remember that the presentation is not about the visual aids; it is about you. You have prepared and you are ready.
Concluding the presentation.
In developing the outline for your presentation, you organized the material you collected into themes and topics with an eye on what would be appropriate for the beginning, middle, and end of your presentation. Over the course of your delivery you have carefully developed these themes and topics in light of the purpose of the presentation. At the end of your delivery make sure that you bring your presentation to a close with a concise and effective conclusion. The conclusion should be succinct so that it leaves your audience with a clear message about your main topics and themes. Don’t repeat the main text; summarize it.
In addition, end on a positive note with energy and confidence. This will leave your audience interested in learning more about your topics and themes.
Question-and-answer period.
Dealing with questions can be as intimidating as delivering the presentation itself, and some presenters might prefer to skip the process entirely.
To properly conclude your presentation and respect the relationship you have developed with your audience, you need to allow for questions.
When answering questions, acknowledge the speaker and repeat the question so that the entire audience can hear it. Avoid getting into a debate or argument, and if you do not know the answer to the question, admit it. Ask for the contact information of the person asking the question and offer to get back to them with a response later.
Postpresentation considerations.
After a presentation, the script and visual aids often end up in a folder casually tossed and forgotten on your desk. It is time to get on with other things, and if you need to deliver the presentation again, you can always dig up the folder and use the same materials. This approach is a mistake and wastes a valuable opportunity to take advantage of your initial assessment of the presentation. Even letting a couple of days pass before reviewing your presentation will cause you to forget valuable points.
If you were fortunate enough to get a video recording of your presentation, use it as a tool to examine your presentation for content and style. If possible watch the video twice, focusing on a different aspect each time. It would be difficult to cover both aspects at the same time.
Summary.
Presentations and communications are critical success factors in today’s competitive organizational environment. Managers find they are spending more and more time preparing for presentations, and in communicating their ideas with colleagues, customers, investors, and other stakeholders. It is essential that managers consider these presentation opportunities as important to advancing the organization’s purpose and in achieving its goals and objectives. Properly prepared, managers can use presentations as an effective tool for success and opportunity.
References.
Adubato, Steve. “Put Power of Low-Tech in Presentations,” Star-Ledger (May 25, 2003).
Bobo, John. “How to Repair and Resuscitate an Audience Abused by Boredom,” Presentations 18, Issue 1 (January 2004): 58.
Bunzel, Tom. “Successful Speakers Know How Presenting and Prepara tion Go Hand-in-Hand,” Presentations 17, Issue 10 (October 2003): 58.
Couzins, Martin. “How to Make Effective Presentations,” Personnel To day (July 22, 2003): 25.
Daley, Kevin. “Meeting the Challenges of Group Presenting,” Presenta tions 17, Issue 11 (November 2003): 66.
Executive Communications Group, “Best Business Attire,” PS: For Business Communicators, http://ecglink dot com/newsletter/dress spk_men.shtml.
Finkelstein, Ellen. “A PowerPoint World without Bullets Is Possible, and Beautiful As Well,” Presentations 18, Issue 1 (January 2004): 20.
Hill, Julie. “The Attention Deficit,” Presentations 17, Issue 10 (October 2003): 26.
Messmer, Max. “Public Speaking Success Strategies,” National Public Accountant (November 2003): 26.
Murphy, Herta. Effective Business Communications. New York: McGraw Hill, 1991: 392–395.
Ross, Emily. “The Podium Set,” Business Review Weekly (Australia) (December 11, 2003).
Stafky, Aaryn. “Taking the Fear out of Public Speaking,” Rural Telecom munications, (July–August 2003): 46, 49.
Wahl, Andrew. “PowerPoint of No Return,” Canadian Business 76, Is sue 22 (November 23, 2003): 131.
In addition to length and format, presentations can also vary in style. The main purpose of a presentation is to communicate ideas and information. Effective means of communicating ideas and information can also vary and may include persuasion, instruction, inspiration, or entertainment.
Regardless of length, format, or purpose, presentations are an important and useful tool in all aspects of business. Given their importance, it is surprising that few classes are available on how to present more effectively. All too often associates are assigned the task of “giving a presentation” and then left to their own devices. No wonder so many individuals list public speaking as their greatest fear.
This chapter will assist you in becoming a better presenter by providing you with knowledge about the processes of developing an effective presentation style and format. This is accomplished by asking important questions and providing useful tips that will help in examining the different stages of the presentation process.
To present or not to present.
The first and most important question is whether this presentation is a choice or a requirement. If it is a choice you need to ask yourself some important questions before agreeing to present. Preparing for a presentation takes time. A rough estimate for an effective presentation is that it takes 30 to 60 minutes of preparation for each minute of delivery. Do you have enough focused time prior to the presentation to properly prepare? In addition, are you interested, excited, and sufficiently knowledgeable about the subject matter to deliver an effective and enthusiastic presentation? If the answer to either of these questions is a clear “no,” you should seriously consider turning down the offer to present.
Before the presentation.
Some time spent in planning will pay off. Not only will the presentation be better prepared, the planning process will increase your confidence and be reflected in a more convincing presentation performance.
Define the Parameters.
Knowing the parameters beforehand will limit uncertainties and surprises and make you better prepared to deliver a targeted, informative, and interesting presentation. The most important parameters are topic and theme, time, program, preservation, audience, place, and questions. Some of these parameters can be determined prior to the presentation. More than likely one or two of the later ones will change slightly by the day of the presentation. It is important shortly before the presentation to redefine the parameters to make sure that none of the changes will dramatically affect your presentation.
Topic and Theme. What will you be talking about? Will you be providing a general overview of this topic or highlights of recent activities? Where do you want to go in your presentation of this material?
Time. How much time do you have to make your presentation? It is a simple question to ask, but all too often a presenter finds himself or herself a number on the agenda or a name on the program. There may be a general sense that the talk will take 10 minutes or an hour, but no specifics are provided.
Program. Will there be other speakers presenting? How will the information in your presentation compare or contrast with the topics covered by other speakers? What is the order of the presentations? Are you expected to provide an exciting introduction to the program or a comprehensive summary?
Preservation. In the age of digital camcorders and cable television, presentations are often recorded or televised for future viewing or public consumption. If you think this could be the case with your presentation, ask. If your presentation is being taped, you should ask for a copy. This will be a valuable resource for reviewing your presentation and your presentation style. It will serve as a useful tool if you are asked to give a similar presentation at a later date.
Audience. To whom will you be presenting? Giving a talk about trees to a group of executives in the lumber industry would be significantly different from giving the same talk to the members of an environmental group. Research your audience beforehand. What is their background and how knowledgeable are they about your subject matter? What are they expecting from the presentation and how can you add value to their experience? Are they expecting to be informed, amused, or challenged? How many individuals are expected to attend your presentation? If you are presenting to a group or an organization, especially one with which you are unfamiliar, take a few moments to find out more about it. Simple and useful information can often be found on the organization’s web site or in one of its recent newsletters.
What issues are most important to the members? If the group often hosts presenters, look for references to past presenters. What did these presenters talk about, and how were they received?
Place. Where is the presentation going to take place? How are the acoustics of the space? What audio-video resources are available at this location? Will you be able to connect your laptop to the audio-video system at this location or will you need to load your program onto a computer already at the site? Will there be someone there to assist you with audio-video equipment? Will there be a stage, podium, microphone, table, chairs? Will the audience be seated facing you, or will they be seated around dinner tables? (If possible try to avoid big gaps between you and the audience. Make the setting as intimate as possible.) If you are using a screen for your presentation, where will this screen be located? (Try to get the screen set off to the side rather than in the center of the stage or on a back wall. This will allow you to reference it more easily and move around the stage more comfortably.
Question-and-Answer Component. Will there be questions at the end of the presentation? Will there be a moderator to take questions or will you be expected to handle them yourself? If there are several presenters, will questions be taken at the end of your presentation or after all the presenters have spoken?
Purpose.
Knowing your topic and theme is obviously important in delivering an effective presentation. Knowing why you are presenting, however, is equally important. After taking the time to analyze the audience and assess their needs, decide how these needs can best be met. Four common purposes for a presentation include persuasion, instruction, inspiration, and entertainment. Persuasion is a method for bringing an audience around to your point of view. Instruction is used to share basic information about your topic. Inspiration is effective when used during a change of process, procedure, or direction. Entertainment lightens the mood. Often these purposes are used to varying degrees in a presentation. The important point is that in preparing for your presentation you take a moment to think about what purpose is the most important and effective for your presentation and your audience. To help determine the purpose of your presentation, ask yourself what you want people in the audience to do as a result of having heard your presentation. What concepts do you want your audience to leave with?
Preparing Your Presentation.
As mentioned earlier, for an effective presentation you can expect to spend 30 to 60 minutes of preparation time for each minute of delivery. This means that to deliver a one-hour presentation, one can expect 30 to 60 hours of preparation. This is realistic given the research, preparation, and practice that must go into developing effective presentation materials.
In the current business environment it is often difficult to find time to focus on any one particular project. Interruptions are common, and it always takes a little extra time to mentally reengage and focus on what you were previously doing. If you want to give an engrossing presentation you need to dedicate your full attention to your presentation.
Schedule an appointment with yourself well ahead of your presentation date to make sure that time will be available. Forward your calls, turn off your cell phone and pager, resist the urge to check your e-mail, and put a Do Not Disturb sign on your door. Sometimes the best approach is to find a location to work on your presentation outside of your normal office environment.
Materials. After you have taken time to define the parameters and ask some important questions about the topic and purpose, it is time to begin assembling materials for your presentation. This process involves several steps including collection, organization, writing an outline and rough draft, editing and then reviewing the draft.
1. Collection. Pull together information that you think best suits your topic while addressing the purpose of your presentation.
What information do you have on hand? Is there any infor mation that is out of date or needs to be supplemented with additional materials? Is there anyone who may be able to pro vide you with further useful information?
2. Organization. Go through the materials you have collected and sort them into groups based on themes and topics.
3. Outline and rough draft. Develop a rough outline of your pre sentation. What topics and themes are appropriate for the beginning, middle, and end of your presentation? Expand on your outline to develop a rough draft of your presentation.
Remember, this is a rough draft. Try to determine what are going to be the key points of your presentation. Write several sentences addressing each of the themes and topics contained in your outline. Try to identify at least five key points. More than seven key points is an indication that you may be trying to convey too much information in your presentation. Does starting with these key points, in light of your overall theme and purpose, succinctly tell your audience what you are going to say? Taken together do they successfully summarize your presentation?
4. Editing. For many novice presenters, this part of the presenta tion process receives the least attention. Given time and en ergy constraints, one may decide to wing it with a rough draft in hand. For most, however, taking the time to edit the rough draft will be well worth the time and effort. It makes the dif ference between a fair presentation and an excellent one. Edit ing the rough draft is best begun by letting a bit of time to pass between the writing and the editing. This allows for a fresh approach. In the editing process think about how the presen tation can move from the written to the spoken word. This can be done by simplifying and solidifying the text. Cut un necessary ideas and words, remove or clarify any jargon, and shorten sentences. In addition, support your ideas with anec dotes and examples. At the end of this process you should have a written copy of what you’d like to say in your presenta tion and how you’d like to say it.
5. Review. Take the time to thoroughly review your edited draft.
Read though it out loud several times. If possible do this in front of friends or colleagues. Ask them for criticism and feed back on delivery, content, and style. Is the length appropriate for the time allotted? Are the ideas conveyed clearly? Are the overall theme and purpose maintained?
Preparing for Delivery.
Once the material has been pulled into a spoken format that stays true to the theme and purpose of the presentation, it is time to refine the delivery process. This can be done through the identification of key words and phrases, the selection of appropriate presentation aids, rehearsal, and preparing for questions.
Keys to an Effective Delivery. One of the most important keys to a successful presentation is eye contact. With a written draft in hand, some presenters will keep their eyes glued to the printed page and neglect to make eye contact with their audience. Unless you are delivering a very formal address or speaking to the press, sticking to the exact words of the draft can be unnecessary and stifling. For a more spontaneous and original approach, which involves more eye contact with the audience, it is useful to identify key words and phrases in the draft. These prompts will be the basis of your draft or your visual aids. Stepping away from the script, rehearse your presentation using these prompts. What do these key words and phrases convey? How do they fit into the presentation as a whole? Transfer these prompts to index cards and practice giving your presentation using these cards. Work toward linking these prompts together in your mind and using fewer and fewer of the cards. Continue practicing this process.
Presentation Aids. Even though the rough draft developed from the materials you collected is the main structure of your presentation, there are a variety of aids that can be used to support your topic, theme, and purpose. These include computer-generated graphics, multimedia, and overhead transparencies. There is nothing more disconcerting, however, than a presentation with poor presentation aids.
Instead of supporting your presentation, they detract from it by drawing the audience’s attention away from what you are saying. A Microsoft PowerPoint slide with a solid paragraph of text will accomplish one of two things: It will either put the audience immediately to sleep or pull all eyes to the screen for the next five minutes as people carefully try to comprehend the meaning of the words before them. Use presentation aids to support the presentation and encourage conversation between the audience and the presenter. Make sure to have a printed copy of each of your visual presentation aids in case there are problems with technology and you need to refer to an important number or point. Regardless of which aids you use in your presentation, it is important that all aids meet the following criteria:
Fit with the script you have developed from your rough draft.
They should either summarize or add value to what you are saying at a particular point in your presentation.
Flow with the script. Do the aids fit smoothly together with the topic, theme, and purpose as they develop in your script?
Are they appropriate for the size and type of audience and the venue where the presentation is taking place? Does an infor mal audience of five need a multimedia presentation?
Look clear, readable, and consistent from all places in the room where the presentation is to take place.
Display content simply and effectively. Cluttered and complex slides take attention away from your presentation.
Use appropriate graphics such as drawings, charts, and graph ics to support a particular point or issue.
Remember that the main structure of the presentation is the script, not the presentation aids. The simpler, clearer, and more precise you can make your presentation aids, the more effective they will be in supporting your topic, theme, and purpose. If you have questions about the quality and clarity of any presentations aids, rehearse your presentation for a trusted colleague, friend, or family member and ask for constructive feedback and criticism.
What’s the Point of PowerPoint? Advances in technology have increased the percentage of information we receive visually. This has been especially true since Microsoft brought PowerPoint into our lives and dramatically changed the nature of presentations. Microsoft released PowerPoint in 1987 and since then over 400 million copies have been installed on computers worldwide. Estimates are that it is used in approximately 30 million presentations each day. Some people are now surprised if they attend a presentation and PowerPoint is not part of the program. Many of us, however, look forward to a PowerPoint presentation with all the excitement of a root canal. A dark room, a blue background with white lettering, and we struggle to stay awake and wonder what all that information was about that was flashed up on the screen only minutes ago. PowerPoint is not a required element of a presentation, but it can be a useful tool. Remember, it’s not the slides themselves that are the problem so much as it is the content of the slides and how well the presenter uses them.
One of the biggest problems with PowerPoint is that although some organizations encourage its use there is rarely any emphasis on teaching people how to use it effectively. In addition, some companies and organizations require the use of a particular template or insist that the organization’s logo be present on each slide. This results in poorly designed and ineffective presentation aids that detract from a presenter’s ability to establish a personal relationship with the audience.
Some of these problems can be dealt with, while others must be worked around.
One way to counter these problems is to focus on PowerPoint basics rather than on text animation, clip art, video clips, and colorful backgrounds. The more complex a presentation, the more likely it will upstage the presenter. To keep slides visually simple, use a limit of six words to one line and five lines to a slide. Also use no more than three colors per slide.
PowerPoint should be used to provide a map of what you are talking about and to help provide context for the rest of your presentation. Don’t use PowerPoint as a surrogate for your speech. PowerPoint is not a teleprompter. In fact, putting less material on a slide can provide a unique opportunity for discussion, but make sure that you know the material you are presenting so as to fill in the details. When working with the program make sure that you know the technology well: What cable goes where? How do you advance a slide? These questions should be answered before you enter the room. Use the “Notes” view of PowerPoint to write out what you’d like to say in your presentation. This will serve as a valuable check in making sure that what is shown on the slide directly relates to what you are saying. In addition, it preserves a more detailed copy of your presentation to share with others or to review at a later date. Don’t spend too much time on PowerPoint, though, especially if you are not an expert with the program; time can be better spent working with the core materials of your presentation and rehearsing your delivery. Minimize the number of slides you use in a presentation. The fewer slides the better. If there is additional material that needs to be shared, use handouts.
Learn to use the “B” key, which will black out the screen, giving your audience a chance to shift their focus away from the screen and back to the most important part of the presentation: you.
If you are comfortable with PowerPoint and feel that your presentation of the basics is sufficiently covered, take a step or two away from the bullet point format presented in the PowerPoint templates. Alternatives do exist, and these can add meaning and depth to your presentation. Some examples of these are the use of PowerPoint’s text boxes, diagramming tools, and AutoShapes. If you want to use more graphics in your presentation, PowerPoint makes it easy to add images—a chart, table, or diagram. Think about symbols and analogies that can be used to emphasize your point.
Rehearsal. Similar to the process of editing the rough draft mentioned before, rehearsal is another part of the presentation process that is often skipped over. With a script, a few prompts, and some clever presentation aids, some presenters are ready to go. Once again, however, taking the time to rehearse the presentation will prove worthwhile in the long run. It will smooth over rough patches, reveal areas that may need further attention, and make you more comfortable about delivering the presentation. Rehearsing in front of others can be particularly beneficial and can bring up certain things that may have been overlooked earlier, such as a lack of eye contact, forgetting to smile, putting your hands in your pockets, or turning your back to the audience. If you want to make sure you are mindful of these issues during your presentation, write them down on an index card and place the card in front of you during your presentation.
During the rehearsal process take a moment to reflect on the style and content of your delivery. Does your presentation stay focused and avoid wandering off on tangents? Does it deliver a clear message to o address some of these issues. This will help maintain the focus and attention of your audience.
Preparing for Questions. Try to anticipate some of the questions your audience might ask. How can these questions be answered referencing your presentation or your visual aids? Are there any questions that might require a bit more research on your part?
The Eleventh Hour.
After defining the parameters, developing a script, and preparing the delivery, the time will finally come to give the presentation. There are several important things to think of in the hours before this moment arrives. To cover any last-minute problems, you should redefine the parameters, check yourself, double-check your materials, and arrive early.
Revisit the Presentation Parameters. As mentioned earlier, some of the parameters can be determined prior to the presentation; others will change slightly by the day of the presentation. It is important to take another look at the parameters to make sure that none of the changes will dramatically affect your presentation. Review the parameters and address any concerns or problems. Have there been any changes in the program or agenda? Has your presentation been moved in the program? Will someone be introducing you? Who is that person, and does he or she need anything from you prior to your introduction? Will someone be asking audience members to turn off their cell phones and pagers? You should request this if possible.
Another parameter that often changes the day of the presentation is the size of the audience, which will have a lot to do with how you choose to address the formality and style of your presentation.
For small groups of 5 to 10, the presentation will often be informal.
You can remain seated and work to develop a more personal relationship with your audience members. For an audience containing between 10 and 30 individuals, it is still possible to develop relationships, but the style will probably be more formal. With an audience of this size, visual presentation aids become useful. When the audience size is closer to 100, good presentation aids will become even more useful. An audience of this size will increase formality further and make it more difficult to develop personal relationships. When the audience size surpasses 100, your presentation will be more of a performance. It is best to use a microphone and try to exaggerate facial gestures and arm movements.
Changes and difficulties at the location of your presentation can be a real headache. Give yourself at least a couple of hours before the presentation to double-check the audio-video resources available at the location. Are they working? Are you still able to connect your laptop computer to the audio-video system? Do you need to load your presentation program onto an on-site computer? Do all of your computerbased audiovisuals run smoothly with the projector? Will you be using a remote to advance your slides? Who will help you with the audiovideo equipment if there are any problems? In addition, find out exactly where you will be presenting in the room. Where should you be prior to your presentation? Will a glass of water be available? Where are the restrooms?
Speaker’s Podium and Its Use. A podium has always been a central fixture of lecture halls and auditoriums. For the most part, if there is a podium in the room a presenter will often be drawn to it like a magnet. This is not always for the best. Although a podium can provide a sense of authority and a convenient place to rest one’s water glass, it can also serve as a barrier and hinder one’s efforts to connect with an audience. If a podium is present and there is a convener for the meeting, ask where presenters are expected to deliver their presentations. If the choice is up to you, think about the size and nature of your audience. With a smaller, less formal group, step away from the podium so that you can develop personal and individual relationships with your audience members. With a larger, more formal audience, a podium can serve as a means to minimize stage fright and help the audience focus on the presenter.
Speaking Attire. What are you going to wear for your presentation? With all the thought you have put into preparing what you will say and how you will say it, it is possible that this item has been sidelined until the last minute. The most important thing to keep in mind is that your choice of attire should not detract from the message you are delivering. Dressing conservatively and neatly will convey the professionalism of your presentation. In the minutes before your presentation make sure to double-check your appearance. And did you remember to turn off your cell phone and pager? In general when planning on what to wear for your presentation, consider these questions and the following list of do’s and don’ts from the Executive Communications Group at http://ecglink dot com.
Clothing “Do’s.
Always look professional.
Dress for the audience, the circumstance, the corporate culture, and yourself.
Wear clothes that fit.
Make sure your clothes are pressed.
Keep jackets buttoned (formal).
Err on the side of conservative.
Keep your hair neat and trimmed.
No hair in eyes.
For women: simple manicure, conservative makeup.
Mild (or no) fragrances.
Ties should be conservative and reach the middle of your belt buckle.
Lace-up shoes (usually black) with a suit.
A traditional starched business shirt, preferably white cotton with a suit.
Shirts with a simple collar and cuffs.
A formal but simple watch.
Hair, usually parted to one side, not reaching the top of your shirt collar.
Over-the-calf socks for men; hosiery should be skin color or darker for women.
Clothing “Don’ts”.
Wear clothes that talk louder than you do.
Undo multiple buttons on your shirt or blouse.
Wear clothing that no longer fits.
Wear wrinkled clothing.
Use fabrics that have a noticeable sheen.
Let hair fall in your face or obscure your eyebrows.
Have a hair style that requires continual adjustment.
Use a fragrance that smells from a distance.
Wear an ID badge when you’re presenting.
Wear busy patterns.
Wear garish ties.
Sport untrimmed facial hair (in some organizations, any facial hair can be career-inhibiting).
Wear shiny tie pins or clips or big belt buckles.
Wear visible jewelry (other than a watch and/or a single sim ple ring).
Wear distracting lapel pins for men, or dangles, bangles, or anything noisy for women.
Leave top shirt button open with a tie.
Wear short-sleeved dress shirts.
Wear short socks.
Wear loafers with a suit for men, or open-toe or ultrahigh-heel shoes for women.
Other Appearance Considerations. Your audience should be able to see your eyes clearly and easily. If you wear glasses, consider an antiglare coating for the lenses, which makes it easier to see your eyes.
Avoid any tint (unless medically necessary) and avoid heavy frames that can obscure your eyes. Any perfume, cologne, or perfumed grooming product should not be noticeable at normal business proximity. This means that you can exit the elevator and no one entering should be able to guess that you were there. Also, if you will be in a health care setting, you should not wear anything scented because colognes can aggravate certain medical conditions and allergies.
Importance of Backup Plans and Preplanning.
Do not make the mistake of leaving an important presentation aid behind at your home or office. Put the materials you will need for your presentation in a separate and secure location. Check them carefully the day before and the morning of your presentation to make sure that nothing is missing or broken. Bring a backup copy of your visual aids in a folder or on a CD in case something happens to the originals. Are there any handouts you want to provide to your audience during or after your presentation? If so, make sure that you have more than enough copies available well in advance of the presentation day. Do you have that index card of what to be mindful of when presenting (such as looking your audience in the eye)?
In order to do a last-minute check of the parameters, arrive early.
Knowing that the audio-video equipment and your laptop are working will put your mind at rest and add to your confidence about your presentation. Take a minute to look over your notes and run through your key words and phrases. In addition, and if it is appropriate given the size and formality of your audience, playing host before your presentation can be a good way to begin developing a relationship with your audience. Greet audience members individually as they arrive, and ask people if they are comfortable in their seats and can see the screen. Developing a personal relationship with your audience in this way will also help alleviate some of your stage fright.
Delivering the presentation.
The time has finally come to take the stage. There are a couple of important steps that can be taken to engage your audience and make your presentation informative and interesting. To overcome stage fright, remember that for most situations the audience wants the speaker to succeed. The audience is there because they want to hear what you have to say. Once you have been introduced to the audience, take a moment to establish your presence. This is not very difficult, but it does involve patience and a bit of confidence. It is done by taking a deep breath, looking your audience in the eye, relaxing your frame, and, most importantly, smiling.
The Introduction.
Even if someone has already taken the time to introduce you, it is helpful to take a moment to introduce yourself. This will quickly clarify a couple of important points. It lets your audience know who you are, what you have come to speak to them about, and what credentials you possess to speak on this subject. This also shapes the audience’s expectations of your presentation.
The best presentations are engaging as well as informative. In order to engage the audience, you need to begin developing a relationship. Get your audience’s attention by showing them that you understand their concerns and issues, that you are aware of their expectations, and that you respect their opinions. You can do this by asking an engaging question, doing something unexpected, or showing them a unique visual aid. This not only serves to break the ice but also shifts some of the attention from you back to the audience. One of the most effective tools for developing a relationship with your audience is to tell a story. This is not always easy, but an engaging story that is relevant to your presentation will get your audience’s attention quickly and effectively.
Sometimes, especially during a long presentation, the audience’s attention might begin to drift. Don’t hesitate to take a break during your presentation at an appropriate point. A five-minute break can do wonders for reviving your audience. You might even plan for a break during the initial stages of planning your presentation.
It is important to remember that when you are developing a relationship you need to be yourself. Use your emotion as well as the raw information contained in your presentation to convey your message.
Having a sense of conviction about what you are saying will serve not only to strengthen your relationship with the audience, but also to alleviate some of the initial stage fright you might feel.
Sometimes, through no fault of your own, you will find yourself in front of an unresponsive audience. It could be due to the poor quality of previous presenters or the fact that attendance was mandatory.
Perhaps it’s just that it’s 7 A.M. on a Monday morning after a three-day weekend. Regardless of the cause, no matter what you try, the audience refuses to display any emotion about your presentation. In this case it’s best to face facts and move on. Focus on your material and speak passionately and convincingly. Remember that just because the audience as a whole was cold and unresponsive, this is not necessarily true about the individuals that make up the audience. Given another time or space and some one-on-one contact, you may find that members of the audience were receptive to the topic, theme, and purpose of your presentation.
Body and Voice.
Having conviction in what you are saying will be conveyed not only in the words you use, but also in the way you stand and the way you speak. In establishing your presence you took a deep breath, relaxed a bit, and smiled. This process is meant to prepare your body and voice for the task ahead. During the presentation your stance should be erect and focused. Your feet should be shoulder-width apart and your weight should be balanced. Remember to keep your hands out of your pockets and look your audience in the eye. If you have your index card in front of you, you won’t make the mistake of forgetting this during your presentation. Avoid turning your back to your audience, don’t lean casually against a podium or table, and don’t fidget with clothing or jewelry. Your casual stance can come across as disinterested, unprepared, and disrespectful. This is not the impression you want to leave your audience with after the presentation is finished.
If you are having trouble looking your audience in the eye, look just over the head of the person sitting in the last row. In this way it will seem to people in the audience that you are looking directly at them. Another option is to look at the center of people’s faces rather than at their eyes. You can also select a few people around the room you feel comfortable making eye contact with and focus on them.
Choose the option that best suits your comfort level.
In addition to a straight and focused posture, your body language should also be positive and as natural as possible. When you are trying to share important information with family members or friends, how do you approach them? Do you move around and use hand gestures and facial expressions? Do you sometimes smile and laugh? Use this same approach with your audience. It will convey to them that you are confident, sincere, and respectful.
If you are uncertain about your posture and body language during your presentation, make a video recording of yourself during your rehearsals. Watch the video and keep an eye out for poor posture or body language and any tendencies that might detract from the focus of your presentation.
To be truly effective, however, an erect and confident posture combined with a positive and natural manner must be accompanied by an effective use of voice. One of the biggest problems that people experience when giving a presentation is that they begin speaking very quickly. The material rushes by in a blur and the audience is left squinting at the visual aids trying to figure out exactly what was said.
Speaking quickly also has a tendency to raise the pitch of your voice and wear you out quickly. There are a few steps that can be taken to guard against the tendency to speak too quickly. First, take a deep breath and relax. Breathing normally will help pace your speech. Second, listen to yourself. Do you seem to be rushing your sentences? Do you feel short of breath? Is the tone of your voice rising? If so, slow down, work on lowering your voice, and take a breath. Third, if, despite forewarning and practice, you still find yourself speaking too quickly, get a trusted colleague, friend, or family member to sit in the front row during your presentation. Visually check in with that person every couple of minutes and have him give you a subtle hand gesture if you need to slow down.
Another problem people often experience when giving a presentation is hesitating and saying “um” or “er” when they have lost their train of thought. A better approach is to pause, take a breath, and refocus. Be conscious of whether or not you have these tendencies. If you are unsure, make a recording of yourself giving your presentation.
While listening to the recording, follow along in your rough script.
How often do you hear yourself say “um” or “er”? Are there certain places in your presentation where you have more trouble than others?
Be aware of these problems and work to correct them.
An additional and important element to consider in regard to the use of your body and voice during your presentation is variation. This is part of the process of conveying emotion to your audience. While rehearsing your presentation, think about ways to change your body language or voice to convey the importance of particular material. Change the speed and tone of your voice and use inflections and emphasis.
One of the most effective ways of making a point during a presentation is the use of silence. After making a particularly important point or summarizing several previous points, pause for a moment and allow the audience to absorb and reflect on what you have said. Vary gestures and other body language to convey similar messages.
Humor.
The use of humor in your presentation is a great way to further build on your relationship with the audience and lighten and vary the mood.
Make sure you are confident in your use of humor and use it to support points in your presentation. Confident, relevant, and natural are the qualities you want to project to your audience. Avoid using humor to belittle or make fun of people in the audience. It will detract from the theme, topic, and purpose of your presentation. As the presenter, you are the only legitimate target for humor in the room.
Expect the Unexpected.
As Dwight D. Eisenhower once said, “In preparing for battle I have always found that plans are useless, but planning is indispensable.” Despite the importance and necessity of all the planning and practicing you have done in order to deliver a successful presentation, learn to expect the unexpected. This requires flexibility both in the way you relate to your audience as well as in the way you deliver your presentation. When mistakes happen, and they will, don’t try to ignore them; this just makes them more obvious. Acknowledge them, deal with them, and move on. This can be done by deflecting them or countering them with the use of light humor. Don’t, however, be overly sensitive to mistakes. In many cases the mistake may be small enough that the audience may not have even noticed it.
A level of flexibility should also be present in the delivery of your presentation. A presenter who is too polished, overly confident, or too prepared can alienate an audience. Be sensitive to how the audience is relating to you and be flexible enough in your presentation to lighten the mood or change the style of your delivery. Leaving room for improvisation will add an element of freshness, realism, and sincerity to your presentation.
Flexibility will also be important if there are any problems with your presentation aids. Instead of dwelling on any problems, try to address them and, if you cannot solve them quickly, make a humorous aside and talk directly to your audience. Remember that the presentation is not about the visual aids; it is about you. You have prepared and you are ready.
Concluding the presentation.
In developing the outline for your presentation, you organized the material you collected into themes and topics with an eye on what would be appropriate for the beginning, middle, and end of your presentation. Over the course of your delivery you have carefully developed these themes and topics in light of the purpose of the presentation. At the end of your delivery make sure that you bring your presentation to a close with a concise and effective conclusion. The conclusion should be succinct so that it leaves your audience with a clear message about your main topics and themes. Don’t repeat the main text; summarize it.
In addition, end on a positive note with energy and confidence. This will leave your audience interested in learning more about your topics and themes.
Question-and-answer period.
Dealing with questions can be as intimidating as delivering the presentation itself, and some presenters might prefer to skip the process entirely.
To properly conclude your presentation and respect the relationship you have developed with your audience, you need to allow for questions.
When answering questions, acknowledge the speaker and repeat the question so that the entire audience can hear it. Avoid getting into a debate or argument, and if you do not know the answer to the question, admit it. Ask for the contact information of the person asking the question and offer to get back to them with a response later.
Postpresentation considerations.
After a presentation, the script and visual aids often end up in a folder casually tossed and forgotten on your desk. It is time to get on with other things, and if you need to deliver the presentation again, you can always dig up the folder and use the same materials. This approach is a mistake and wastes a valuable opportunity to take advantage of your initial assessment of the presentation. Even letting a couple of days pass before reviewing your presentation will cause you to forget valuable points.
If you were fortunate enough to get a video recording of your presentation, use it as a tool to examine your presentation for content and style. If possible watch the video twice, focusing on a different aspect each time. It would be difficult to cover both aspects at the same time.
Summary.
Presentations and communications are critical success factors in today’s competitive organizational environment. Managers find they are spending more and more time preparing for presentations, and in communicating their ideas with colleagues, customers, investors, and other stakeholders. It is essential that managers consider these presentation opportunities as important to advancing the organization’s purpose and in achieving its goals and objectives. Properly prepared, managers can use presentations as an effective tool for success and opportunity.
References.
Adubato, Steve. “Put Power of Low-Tech in Presentations,” Star-Ledger (May 25, 2003).
Bobo, John. “How to Repair and Resuscitate an Audience Abused by Boredom,” Presentations 18, Issue 1 (January 2004): 58.
Bunzel, Tom. “Successful Speakers Know How Presenting and Prepara tion Go Hand-in-Hand,” Presentations 17, Issue 10 (October 2003): 58.
Couzins, Martin. “How to Make Effective Presentations,” Personnel To day (July 22, 2003): 25.
Daley, Kevin. “Meeting the Challenges of Group Presenting,” Presenta tions 17, Issue 11 (November 2003): 66.
Executive Communications Group, “Best Business Attire,” PS: For Business Communicators, http://ecglink dot com/newsletter/dress spk_men.shtml.
Finkelstein, Ellen. “A PowerPoint World without Bullets Is Possible, and Beautiful As Well,” Presentations 18, Issue 1 (January 2004): 20.
Hill, Julie. “The Attention Deficit,” Presentations 17, Issue 10 (October 2003): 26.
Messmer, Max. “Public Speaking Success Strategies,” National Public Accountant (November 2003): 26.
Murphy, Herta. Effective Business Communications. New York: McGraw Hill, 1991: 392–395.
Ross, Emily. “The Podium Set,” Business Review Weekly (Australia) (December 11, 2003).
Stafky, Aaryn. “Taking the Fear out of Public Speaking,” Rural Telecom munications, (July–August 2003): 46, 49.
Wahl, Andrew. “PowerPoint of No Return,” Canadian Business 76, Is sue 22 (November 23, 2003): 131.
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